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final exam Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

relationship between properties of lipids and their structure

A

-made of c h and o
-fatty acid are more solid the longer their carbon chain is
-saturated fats acid have max h on all c and unsaturated don’t
-non polar molecules so makes them water insoluble except phospholipids that have dual solubility as they have a polar head so hydrophilic and non polar hydrophobic tails
-steroids are lipid hormones that can diffuse through the cell membrane

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2
Q

relationship between properties of carbohydrates and their structure

A

-c h and o in 1;2:1 ratio
-polar molecules so highly soluble;e in water
-polysaccahrides of monosaccharides linked by dehydration synthesis reaction

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3
Q

major fuel substances

A

carbohydrates and fats as well as protein if others are low provide chemical energy for cellular activity

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4
Q

relationship between properties of proteins and their structure

A

-polymers of amino acids
-link between each amino acid is a peptide bond between nh2 and cooh by dehydration synthesis
-chain of amino acid=polypeptide
-protein=folded polypeptide
-amino acids are made of a central carbon linked to an r chain, a cooh, a h, and an nh2
-4 types of amino acids; non polar, uncharged polar, negatively charged acidic and positively charged basic

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5
Q

relationship between properties of nucleic acids and their structure

A

-polymers of nucleotides
-nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base made with carbon rings and n atoms, a five carbon ring shaped sugar and 1 to 3 phosphate groups all linked through covalent bonds
-backbone of a nucleic acid is made by the bridging phosphate group between carbon of one sugar and carbon of the next between dna and rna

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6
Q

cellulose and chitin function

A

rigidity and support (beta linkage)

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7
Q

function glycogen and starch

A

fuel storage (alpha linkage)

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8
Q

bacteria and archea similarities

A

-dna is a single circular molecule (prokaryotic chromosome)
-no cytoplasmic organnelles
-cytoplasm more viscous as reactions are carried out in cytoplasmic solution and plasma membrane so lots of macromol there
-contain plasmids (small dna circles)
-genes arranged in operons
-no nuclear envelope

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9
Q

bacteria archea eukarya similarity

A

-have ribosomes

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10
Q

bacteria

A

-phospholipid cell membrane (flexible)
-peptidoglycan cell wall (rigid) (polymer of sugars and amino acids)
-bacteria probably first organism on earth
-shape is most important classification criteria
-

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11
Q

archea

A

-extremophiles

-

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12
Q

eukarya and archea

A

-both have histones
-no peptidoglycan
-multiple types of rna polymerase
-have methionine as first amino a of each protein

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13
Q

eukarya

A

-separate dna and cytoplasm with nuclear envelope
-have membrane bound components (organelles) with specialized functions
-protists, fungi, plants, animals

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14
Q

protists

A

-chemoheterotrophs (take energy from chem bonds between molecules and obtain carbon from org mol produced by other organisms)
-photoautotrophs (produce org molecules for themselves by photosynthesis)
-membrane bound nucleus and multiple linear chromosomes

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15
Q

fungi

A

-chitin made cell wall
-can do symbiose and associate with like plant and make micorrizhas
-heterotrophs (get carbon by decomposing org matter) if the decomposed material is living the fungi is symbiont and if its nonliving its sapotroph
-fungi release antibacterial compounds so that there is no competition for the enzymes it releases into its substrate

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16
Q

animalia

A

-eukaryotic multicellular organisms
-dont have cell wall so cell membranes of adjacent cells are in direct contact with one another
-heterotrophs (depend on other life forms to survive)
-use oxygen to metabolize food
-animals are motible
reproduce sexually or asexually
-sit at top of food chains
-chemoheterotrophs (energy from chem sources and their carbon from org compounds)

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17
Q

plantae

A

-use chlorophyll to do photosynthesis
-cell walls made of cellulose
-multicellular
-sessile or stationnary
-alternation of generations life cycles
-diploid and haploid stage
-photoautotrophs
bottom of food chains and primary producers

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18
Q

base pairs from dna to rna

A

a to u
t to a
c to g
g to c

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19
Q

different types of snp

A

base sub
frameshift mutations

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20
Q

missence mutations

A

base sub
alters identity one amino acid
does not change reading frame
moderate to deleterious effects on the protein

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21
Q

nonsense mutation

A

base sub
generates early stop codon
protein is truncated
severe effects on protein function

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22
Q

silent mutation

A

base sub
generates no change
protein identical so no effect

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23
Q

frameshift mutations

A

insertion or deletion
changes the reading frame as a premature stop codon will be produced

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24
Q

types lcr

A

deletions
inversions
translocation
duplications

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25
Q

deletion

A

-occurs if segment broken and lost from chromo
-may cause severe problems if the missing segment contains genes that are essential for normal development or cellular function

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26
Q

duplication

A

-occurs if a segment is broken from a chromo and added to the homologous chromo of the pair
-effects vary from beneficial to harmful depending on the alleles and genes in broken segment

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27
Q

translocation

A

-a segment breaks from a chromo and reattaches on another non homologous

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28
Q

inversion

A

-occurs if a broken segment attaches on the same chromosome but in reverse orientation

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29
Q

start codon on mRNA

A

AUG

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30
Q

first step transcription

A

initiation
transcription factors bind to TATA box in promoter and recruit RNA polymerase II that will initiate transcription

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31
Q

second step transcription

A

elongation
rna polymerase 2 unwinds the dna strands and adds new complementary base pairs to the newly formed mrna strand

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32
Q

last third step transcription

A

termination
rna polymerase is released and the dna rewinds

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33
Q

differences in transcription in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes

A

-proka: no transcription factors, rna polymerase binds directly to promoter to start transcription
-proka: no need for mRNA processing, its ready to be translated
-termination in proka is done either by mrna binding on itself forming a hairpin and releasing the polymerase or by a protein factor terminating transcription

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34
Q

rna polymerase 1

A

transcribes dna into rrna

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35
Q

rna polymerase ii

A

enzme used to transcribe protein coding genes
dna to mrna

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36
Q

rna polymerase iii

A

enzyme used to transcribe dna into trna and rrna

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37
Q

rrna

A

composes the ribosomes

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38
Q

trna

A

what brings the amino acid to the ribosomes

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39
Q

transcription

A

from 3’ to 5’ dna to 5’ to 3’ mrna

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40
Q

translation

A

5’ to 3’ mrna to protein starting by N and ending by c

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41
Q

role ribosome

A

facilitate the interaction between mRNA and Trna and hold the growing mRNA

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42
Q

what happens inside the ribosome

A

1 trna molecule bringing the amino acid that matches the codon on mrna enters the ribosome in A site
2 the amino acid is transferred to the growing polypeptide chain in the p site
3 once the transfer is complete the ribosome moves along the mrna while the trna exists through the e site

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43
Q

first step translation

A

initiation
-a specialized methionine bound to a gtp initiates translation
-the ribosomes scans mrna to find start codon and establish. correct reading frame

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44
Q

second step translation

A

elongation
what happens through ribosome is elongation

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45
Q

third step translation

A

termination
when ribosomes finds stop codon, there is a release factor that releases polypeptide

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46
Q

polysome

A

complex of multiple ribosomes that makes for a faster translation

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47
Q

PolyA tail

A

-post transcriptional and translational control
-The polyA tail prevents the degradation of mRNA when it enters the cytoplasm.
-The length of the polyA tail will modulate the translation rate of the mRNA. A polyA tail contains between 50 and 250 adenine nucleotides. The longer the polyA tail, the higher the translation rate.

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48
Q

5’ cap

A

The addition of a 5’ cap prevents the degradation of mRNA when it travels to the cytoplasm.

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49
Q

dna methylation

A

-transcr control
Adding methyl groups on the cytosine nucleotides of the promoter prevents transcription factors from binding to the promoter and thus prevents RNA polymerase from initiating transcription.

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50
Q

histone tail acetylation

A

-transc control
- Acetylating histone tails enables RNA polymerase to circulate on the mRNA molecule, which is impossible to do when the histone tails are not acetylated.

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51
Q

chromatin remodelling

A

trancr control
Chromatin can be remodeled to make the promoter accessible to transcription factors and activators, increasing the transcription rate.

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52
Q

Splicing

A

post transcr control
By removing the introns from the mRNA, a complete and continuous open reading frame is produced, ready for the ribosome to translate. Splicing is performed by the spliceosome, a multiprotein complex containing snRNPs designed to interact with the splice sites of mRNA polymers.

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53
Q

mechanisms of microevolution

A

mutation
gene flow
genetic drift
natural selection
non random mating

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54
Q

mutations u4

A

-spontaneous and heritable change in DNA
-rare, even more rare are new mutations
-classified based on the effect they have on an organism’s fitness
-have an effect on the long term as they are transferred to offsprings

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55
Q

types of mutations

A

-harmful; alter individual’s structure, behaviour or function in harmful way
-lethal; great harm to organism
-neutral; doesn’t harm or benefit organism
-advantageous

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56
Q

non random mating

A

selection of a mate as certain phenotypes are preferred.
if one phenotype preferred by MOST than nonrandom
sexual selection occurs when pop is healty, it creates extreme phenotypes
-inbreeding: genetically related individuals breeding
-self fertilization: extreme inbreeding as 1 individual’s gametes are used

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57
Q

gene flow

A

-organism immigrating to another population and reproducing creates gene flow

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58
Q

genetic drift

A

-causes allele frequencies of a pop to change unpredictably
-individuals/alleles survive and reproduce by chance and not fitness
-bottleneck effect: kills off large part pop and greatly reduces genetic variation
-founder effect: when few individuals colonize region, they bring only few alleles

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59
Q

natural selection

A

-process by which advantageous traits become more frequent in later generations
-some organisms might die and not pass on their alleles as they are not fit to survive

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60
Q

how does genetic drift contrasts with natural selection in terms of allele frequencies

A

natural selection chooses alleles that are advantageous for following generations, they make the org better fit to survive whereas genetic drift can negatively affect the following generations as it might not choose the best alleles

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61
Q

types natural selection

A

disruptive: intermediate dies as extreme phenotypes are more fit
stabilizing: extremes die as intermediate phenotypes are more fit
directionnal: one extreme dies as the other has better fitness

62
Q

macroevolution

A

leads to speciation
accumulation of microevolutionary changes

63
Q

microevolution

A

small changes that leads to different organisms in a specie (types of dogs)

64
Q

prezygotic reproductive isolating mechanisms

A

ecological isolation: species have different habitats and dont meet
behavioral isolation: courtship mech of some species aren’t recognized by other ones
temporal isolation: species dont mate in same season
mechanical isolation: species cant physically mate
gametic isolation: species have nonmatching receptors on gametes

65
Q

postzygotic reproductive isolating mechanisms

A

hybrid inviability: very short lifespan
hybrid sterility: cant produce functional gametes and reproduce
hybrid breakdown: F1 will look healthy and live but f2 will experience reduced survival and fertility

66
Q

modes of speciation

A

allopatric
parapatric
sympatric
autopolyploidy
allopolyploidy

67
Q

allopatric speciation

A

2 populations get geographically preventing gene flow
and accumulate genetic differences that isolate them reproductively

68
Q

sympatric speciation

A

this reproductive isolation evolves between distinct subgroups in one population

69
Q

parapatric

A

caused by a discontinuity in environnemental conditions

70
Q

autoployploidy

A

when 2 organisms are which genetically close enough together can repdosuce and make an hybrid with a bigger ploidy

71
Q

allopolyploidy

A

chromo are doubled in mitosis

72
Q

different concepts of species

A

morphological
biological
phylogenetic

73
Q

morphological concept

A

based on the physical appearance of a species and the traits they share, however doesnt help distinguish closely related species and it tells us little about the evolutionnary processes that produce new species

74
Q

biological concept

A

says that if two pop interbreed and produce fertile offspring, they are of same specie
emphasizes the genetic distinctivness of each specie
does not work for specie that reproduce asexually or hybrids

75
Q

the phylogenetic concept

A

using morphology and genetic sequence data it creates an evolutionary tree
can apply to extinct species and those that reproduce asexually

76
Q

duplicated vs unduplicated chromosomes

A

duplicated 2N has the form of a X, 2 sister chromatids
unduplicated 2n has form of I, 1 chromatid

77
Q

how are the chromosomes in G1of interphase of mitosis

A

unreplicated uncondensed 2n

78
Q

how are the chromosomes in G2 of interphase of mitosis

A

replicated unattached uncondensed 2N

79
Q

how are the chromosomes in prophase of mitosis

A

2 sister chromatids attached by centromere condensed and visible 2N

80
Q

how are the chromosomes in prometaphase of mitosis

A

2 sister chromatids attached by centromere condensed and visible 2N and attached to kinetochores

81
Q

how are the chromosomes in metaphase of mitosis

A

2 sister chromatids attached by centromere condensed and visible 2N aligned

82
Q

how are the chromosomes in anaphase of mitosis

A

2 separated sister chromatids 2N->4n

83
Q

how are the chromosomes in telophase of mitosis

A

4n and chromo go back to being chromatin

84
Q

function mitosis

A

cell divides into 2 identical cells
growth
injury repair
replacement of worn out cells

85
Q

functions meiosis

A

gamete formation so in testes and ovaries
creates genetic diversity
reproduction

86
Q

g1 of interphase of mitosis

A

before dna replication
growth of rna proteins and organelles

87
Q

s phase mitosis

A

each chromosome is replicated

88
Q

g2 of interphase of mitosis

A

special proteins check for mistake dna, if there is, cell duplication stops there
centrioles duplicates

89
Q

prophase of mitosis

A

chromo condense into threads that become visible
centrosomes start to separate and form spindle

90
Q

prometaphase of mitosis

A

nuclear enveloppe disappears and spindle enters the former nuclear area
microtubules from the opposite spindles attach to kinetochores of chromosomes

91
Q

metaphase of mitosis

A

chromosomes align on metaphase plate/spindle midpoint
kinetochore microtubules try pulling apart the sister chromatids

92
Q

anaphase of mitosis

A

sister chromatids are separated from one another and moved to opposite poles by spindle

93
Q

telophase of mitosis

A

chromosomes unfold and return to chromatin and nuclear envelopes reform the cytoplasm starts separating in two cells because of furrowing

94
Q

condensation of chromosomes in prophase of meiosis 1

A

chromo are 2N so duplicated sister chromatids
centrioles are duplicated
chromo condenses

95
Q

synapsis is prophase 1 of meiosis 1

A

homologous chromosomes come together and pair to form tetrads (4 sister chromatids of an homologous chromosome)
2N

96
Q

recombination of prophase 1 of meiosis 1

A

chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange segments
2N

97
Q

prometaphase 1 of prophase 1 of meiosis 1

A

nuclear envelope breaks down and spindle goes to former nuclear area
kinetochore microtubule attach to chromosomes (tetrads)
2N

98
Q

what creates genetic diversity

A

the independant assortment of chromosomes
recombination

99
Q

metaphase of meiosis 1

A

spindle microtubules align the tetrads on metaphase plate
2N

100
Q

anaphase of meiosis 1

A

spindle microtubules separate two chromosomes of each homologous pair and move them to opposite spindle poles
poles now contain haploid number of chromosomes (each chromo still contains 2 sister chromatids)
2n

101
Q

telophase of meiosis 1

A

spindle of first meiotic division disassembles and 2 new spindle form for second division
2N->1N

102
Q

cytokinesis of meiosis 1

A

cleavage furrow separates in two cells

103
Q

prophase of meiosis 2

A

chromosomes recondense and spindle forms
1N

104
Q

metaphase of meiosis 2

A

the spindle microtubules align the chromosomes on metaphase plate
1N

105
Q

anaphase of meiosis 2

A

spindle microtubules separate the two chromatids od each chromosome and deliver them to opposite spindle poles
1N -> 2n

106
Q

telophase of meiosis 2

A

chromosomes decondense and separate in 4 cells of 1n and new nuclear envelopes form

107
Q

gene

A

unit containing the code for a protein molecule or one of its parts, or for functioning rna molecules such as tRNA or rRNA

108
Q

allele

A

version of a gene

109
Q

genotype

A

genetic constitution of an individual, the different allele an individual has

110
Q

phenotype

A

outward appearance of an organism, the genes showed

111
Q

trait

A

heritable variation in character

112
Q

homozygote

A

2 identical alleles for the same gene

113
Q

heterozygote

A

2 different alleles for a gene

114
Q

autosome

A

non sexual chromosome

115
Q

sexual chromosome

A

x or y

116
Q

complete dominance

A

all the same in F1 and 3;1 ratio in f2

117
Q

epistasis

A

genes interact and some alleles block the appearance of a trait or enhance it

118
Q

incomplete dominance

A

heterozygote individuals will show a new phenotype
f2 ratio 1;2;1

119
Q

codominance

A

both phenotypes are expressed 1:2:1 f2 ratio

120
Q

lethal alleles

A

can result in death of carrier

121
Q

multiple alleles

A

differences in the dna sequence of a gene at one or more points which results in detectable differences in the structure of the protein encoded by the gene

122
Q

4 inheritance patterns of pedigrees

A

autosomal dominant
autosomal recessive
x linked dominant
x linked recessive

123
Q

autosomal dominant

A

allele for trait carried on autosome and is dominant

124
Q

autosomal recessive

A

allele for the trait carried on autosome and is recessive

125
Q

x linked recessive

A

allele for trait carried on x chromosome and is recessive

126
Q

x linked dominant

A

allele for the trait is carried on sex chromosome x and is dominant

127
Q

pedigree square

A

male

128
Q

pedigree round

A

female

129
Q

darkened shape

A

affected

130
Q

pedigree skips generation

A

recessive

131
Q

pedigree recessive more men affected than female

A

x linked recessive

132
Q

pedigree recessive and mother has an unaffected son

A

definetly not x linked

133
Q

pedigree dominant and affected father has unaffected daughter

A

not x linked dominant

134
Q

how was the miller urey experiment a key step in understanding life on earth?

A

-mimicked the conditions of the ancient Earth
-in only a week, many molecules were produced and especially amino acids, who were once thought to only be produced by life itself
-amino acids can then be created from the environment

135
Q

pedigree if unsure

A

most probably…

136
Q

what were the conditions present in primordial Earth and how did they possibly have favored the appearance of organic molecules?

A

-lightning, storms, UV radiation, presence of gases like ammonia, hydrogen, methane, volcanoes, seismic activity
-life’s atmosphere (made of C-H-N) could have used the energy from lightning for example, to create macromolecules who then became living things

137
Q

how would an RNA world be sustainable on its own?

A

-RNA can replicate itself using complementary base pairing
-the replications can have mutations, proving that the RNA evolves
-when placed in environment without nucleotides, it folds up on itself and base pairs with itself: Ribozymes

all of this without external help

138
Q

what is the RNA world theory?

A

somewhere on early planet, random chains of RNA were produced. they began evolving and replicating and competing for survival and then gave birth to the first forms of life.

139
Q

what are ribozymes and what do they do?

A

RNA folded up on itself with sticky base pairs sticking out that can interact with their environment and create nucleotides.

140
Q

what evidence is in our cells and supports the rna wolrd hypothesis

A

-all cells are full of RNA
-they’re DNA’s cousin
-they can create nucleotides

141
Q

what were probably the first cells?

A

protobiont: abiotically produced organic molecules that are surrounded by a membrane.

142
Q

how did transitions occur?

A

-cooperation: a group of molecules/organisms get together and form a cooperative group
-each member of the group becomes specialized and can no longer survive on its own
->now evolve together as one

143
Q

what are the main evolutionary transitions that occurred in earth’s history?

A

genes to genomes
simple cells to complex cells
single cells to multicellular

144
Q

how can cooperation be selected by natual selection?

A

Individuals avoid getting eaten by predators by sticking together. They then become codependent and the better cooperative group will survive better.

145
Q

how did multicellular life appear and what were its advantages?

A

-single cells can work together to better survive, they then evolve together as one, becoming multicellular
-better survival

146
Q

why is biodiversity so important?

A

-it is all processes essential to supporting life:
air, water, food, pollination
-diversity = stability
-by being stable, they can better survive extreme environments

147
Q

lac operon induced or repressible and what type rxn

A

induced and catabolic

148
Q

trp operon induced or repressible and what type rxn

A

repressible and anabolic

149
Q

what happens to the lac operon when no lactose

A

the Lac repressor encoded by the LacI gene is active and binds to the operator so no transcription really occurs (basal level)

150
Q

what happens to the lac operon when lactose present

A

the lactose is converted to allocase which inactivates the repressor so it does not bind to the operator so transcription can occur

151
Q

what happens the trp operson when there is no trp

A

the repressor is inactive, so it is prevented from binding to the operator so transcription can happen

152
Q
A

bio 1 (4 decks)

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