Final Exam Flashcards
civic ignorance
Civic ignorance refers to a lack of understanding or awareness about the structures, functions, and processes of democratic governance. This can include not knowing how government institutions work, the roles of elected officials, or the rights and responsibilities of citizens. It often leads to disengagement from civic activities and a lack of participation in democratic processes.
negligence
Negligence refers to the failure to take proper care in doing something, which can result in damage or injury to another person.
For example, if a driver is texting while driving and causes an accident, their lack of attention and care would be considered negligence.
wooden headedness
Wooden headedness refers to being thick-headed, dull, or stupid12. It describes someone who is perceived as lacking intelligence or being stubbornly unresponsive to reason.
shortsightedness
It describes a lack of foresight or planning for the future. For example, a company might be criticized for shortsightedness if it focuses only on immediate profits without considering long-term sustainability2.
bone-headedness
Bone-headedness refers to being foolish, stubborn, or lacking intelligence. It describes someone who makes decisions or acts in a way that seems particularly stupid or clumsy12.
For example, if someone repeatedly ignores good advice and makes the same mistake over and over, their behavior might be described as bone-headedness.
cult of ignorance
The term “cult of ignorance” refers to a societal trend where ignorance is celebrated or valued over knowledge and intellectualism. This concept suggests that some people take pride in their lack of knowledge and dismiss expertise and education. It often involves the belief that one’s uninformed opinion is just as valid as well-researched knowledge
citizenship exam
The citizenship exam is a test that individuals must pass to become naturalized citizens of a country. In the context of the United States, the exam is part of the naturalization process and includes two main components:
English Test: This assesses the applicant’s ability to read, write, and speak basic English.
Civics Test: This evaluates the applicant’s knowledge of U.S. history, government, and civic principles. It includes questions about important historical events, the structure of the government, and the rights and responsibilities of citizens.
Passing the citizenship exam demonstrates that the applicant has the necessary language skills and understanding of the country’s civic values to become a citizen.
naïve realism
In social psychology, naïve realism refers to the tendency to believe that we see the world objectively, and that people who disagree with us must be uninformed, irrational, or biased
confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. This cognitive bias leads people to favor information that supports their views while ignoring or dismissing information that contradicts them.
For example, if someone believes that a particular diet is the best for weight loss, they might only pay attention to articles and studies that support this belief and disregard any evidence to the contrary.
third person effect
The third-person effect is a psychological phenomenon where people tend to believe that mass media messages have a greater influence on others than on themselves. This bias leads individual to think that they are less susceptible to media influence compared to others.
For example, you might watch a political ad and think, “This ad won’t change my opinion, but it will probably influence other voters.” This perception can affect behaviors and attitudes, such as supporting censorship or underestimating one’s own susceptibility to persuasive messages
Dunning-Kruger effect
The Dunning-Kruger effect is a cognitive bias where people with low ability or knowledge in a particular area overestimate their competence. This occurs because they lack the necessary skills to accurately assess their own performance.
For example, someone who is new to playing chess might believe they are much better at the game than they actually are, simply because they don’t yet understand the complexities involved.
intellectual humility
Intellectual humility is the recognition and acceptance of the limits of one’s knowledge and an awareness of one’s fallibility. It involves being open to new ideas, acknowledging mistakes, and understanding that one’s beliefs and opinions might be wrong.
People with intellectual humility are more likely to engage in thoughtful discussions, consider different perspectives, and make better decisions because they are open to learning and growth.
conservativism
Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the value of traditional institutions, practices, and customs. It generally advocates for maintaining established structures and gradual change rather than abrupt or radical shifts.
Key aspects of conservatism include:
Commitment to Tradition: Valuing long-standing cultural and social norms.
Free Enterprise: Supporting private ownership and minimal government intervention in the economy.
Social Stability: Preferring policies that promote order and stability within society
liberalism
Liberalism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes individual rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free enterprise. Key principles of liberalism include:
Individual Freedom: Advocating for personal autonomy and freedom of choice.
Equality: Promoting equal rights and opportunities for all individuals.
Democracy: Supporting democratic governance and the rule of law.
Free Market: Encouraging economic freedom and minimal government intervention in the economy
libertarianism
Libertarianism is a political philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, minimal government intervention, and free markets. It advocates for maximizing personal freedom and autonomy, allowing individuals to make their own choices as long as they do not infringe on the rights of others.
Key principles of libertarianism include:
Personal Freedom: The right to live one’s life as one chooses, provided it doesn’t harm others.
Limited Government: The belief that government should have a minimal role, primarily to protect individual rights and maintain order.
Free Markets: Support for economic freedom and minimal regulation, allowing market forces to operate freely
authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. In such systems, individual freedoms are often subordinated to the authority of the state, which is typically controlled by a single leader or a small group.
Key features of authoritarianism include:
Centralized Control: Power is concentrated in the hands of a few, with little to no checks and balances.
Limited Political Pluralism: Political opposition and dissent are often suppressed.
Lack of Civil Liberties: Freedoms such as speech, assembly, and the press are restricted.
Minimal Political Mobilization: Citizens have limited ability to participate in political processes
ying and yang of liberalism and conservativism
The concept of the “yin and yang of liberalism and conservatism” suggests that these two political philosophies complement each other, much like the ancient Chinese symbol of yin and yang, which represents balance and interdependence12.
Liberalism: Often associated with progress, change, and equality. It emphasizes individual rights, social justice, and government intervention to address social inequalities.
Conservatism: Typically linked to tradition, stability, and order. It values established institutions, gradual change, and minimal government interference in personal and economic affairs3.
Together, these ideologies can create a balanced and dynamic society. Liberals push for progress and reform, while conservatives ensure stability and respect for tradition. This balance can lead to a more harmonious and effective governance, where both innovation and continuity are valued.
belief hygiene
Belief hygiene refers to the practice of regularly examining and updating one’s beliefs to ensure they are accurate, rational, and well-founded. Just as personal hygiene involves maintaining cleanliness to prevent illness, belief hygiene involves maintaining a healthy mindset by questioning assumptions, seeking evidence, and being open to new information12.
Practicing belief hygiene can help prevent cognitive biases, misinformation, and the spread of false beliefs, leading to more informed and rational decision-making.
belief myopia
Belief myopia refers to the tendency to focus narrowly on one’s own beliefs and perspectives, often ignoring or dismissing alternative viewpoints and evidence. This can lead to a limited understanding of complex issues and reinforce existing biases.
For example, someone with belief myopia might only seek out information that confirms their preexisting opinions, while disregarding any contradictory evidence.
direct democracy
Direct democracy, also known as pure democracy, is a form of democracy in which all laws and policies are decided by the people themselves, rather than by elected representatives. In this system, citizens have the direct power to make decisions on policy initiatives through mechanisms like referendums and initiatives.
For example, in a direct democracy, a proposed law might be put to a public vote, and if the majority of citizens approve it, the law is enacted. This contrasts with representative democracy, where elected officials make decisions on behalf of the people
representative democracy
Representative democracy, also known as indirect democracy, is a system of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. These elected officials create and vote on laws, policies, and other matters of government, rather than the citizens voting on each issue directly.
In this system, representatives are accountable to the electorate and must act in the best interests of their constituents. Examples of representative democracies include the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany
high propensity voters
High propensity voters are individuals who consistently participate in elections. These voters have a reliable history of voting in various types of elections, including primaries, midterms, local elections, and presidential elections. Campaigns often target high propensity voters because they are more likely to turn out and cast their ballots, making them crucial for election strategies
low propensity voters
Low propensity voters are individuals who are eligible to vote but have a history of infrequent participation in elections. They often skip midterms, primaries, or even general elections. These voters can be challenging to engage due to various factors such as systemic barriers, personal disinterest, or logistical issues like inconvenient polling locations.
Campaigns often target low propensity voters in voter turnout efforts because their participation can significantly impact the outcome of closely contested races
democracy vouchers
Democracy vouchers are a form of public campaign financing designed to increase political participation and reduce the influence of wealthy donors. Here’s how they work:
Issuance: Eligible voters receive a set amount of vouchers or credits from the government.
Donation: Voters can donate these vouchers to political candidates of their choice.
Redemption: Candidates redeem the vouchers for public campaign funds.
This system aims to empower ordinary citizens to participate more in the financing of political campaigns and to help candidates run for office without relying heavily on wealthy donors.
The first implementation of democracy vouchers was in Seattle, Washington, where each registered voter received four $25 vouchers to support municipal candidates
legislative branch
The legislative branch is one of the three branches of government, primarily responsible for making laws. In the United States, this branch is composed of Congress, which includes two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Here are some key points about the legislative branch:
United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
House of Representatives: Members are elected based on the population of each state, with a total of 435 representatives. They serve two-year terms and are considered closer to the public’s needs and opinions1.
Senate: Each state has two senators, regardless of its population, totaling 100 senators. Senators serve six-year terms and are expected to make decisions based on experience and wisdom.
The legislative branch has the power to draft, debate, and pass laws, which are then enforced by the executive branch and interpreted by the judicial branch
executive branch
The executive branch is one of the three branches of government, responsible for enforcing and carrying out laws. In the United States, it is headed by the President, who serves as both the head of state and the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.
Here are some key components of the executive branch:
President: Leads the executive branch, implements and enforces laws, and has the power to veto legislation, negotiate treaties, and appoint federal officials, including judges and ambassadors.
Vice President: Supports the President and is ready to assume the presidency if needed.
Cabinet: Composed of the heads of the executive departments, such as the Department of Defense and the Department of Education, who advise the President and help implement policies.
Federal Agencies: Various agencies like the CIA and EPA, which handle specific areas of administration and enforcement.
The executive branch plays a crucial role in the day-to-day administration of the federal government and in shaping both domestic and foreign policies
judicial branch
Copilot
Sent by Copilot:
The judicial branch is one of the three branches of government, responsible for interpreting and applying laws. In the United States, this branch includes the system of federal courts and judges, with the Supreme Court being the highest authority.
Here are some key points about the judicial branch:
Interpretation of Laws: The judicial branch interprets laws passed by the legislative branch and enforced by the executive branch.
Court System: It includes various levels of courts, such as district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court.
Judicial Review: The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review, which allows it to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional.
The judicial branch ensures that laws are applied fairly and consistently, protecting individual rights and maintaining the rule of law
Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence is a historic document that was approved by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. It announced the separation of 13 North American British colonies from Great Britain.
Here are some key points about the Declaration of Independence:
Purpose: It explained why the colonies decided to declare independence, listing grievances against King George III and asserting the colonies’ right to self-governance.
Authorship: The primary author was Thomas Jefferson, with input from other members of the Committee of Five, including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin.
Impact: The Declaration marked the beginning of the United States as an independent nation and has since become a symbol of liberty and democracy
articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution of the United States, in effect from 1781 to 178912. It established a confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government, reflecting the colonies’ recent experience with British rule.
Here are some key points about the Articles of Confederation:
Structure: It created a single-chamber Congress where each state had one vote, regardless of size2.
Powers: Congress could conduct foreign affairs, declare war, and manage relations with Native American tribes, but it lacked the power to tax or regulate commerce.
Weaknesses: The lack of a strong central authority led to difficulties in governance, such as financial instability and challenges in enforcing laws.
The Articles of Confederation ultimately paved the way for the drafting of the U.S. Constitution, which established a stronger federal government
U.S. Constitution
The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the United States, establishing the framework for the federal government and outlining the rights of citizens12. It was drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, replacing the Articles of Confederation.
Here are some key points about the U.S. Constitution:
Structure: It consists of a preamble, seven articles, and 27 amendments.
Preamble: The introduction that outlines the purpose of the document and the government it establishes.
Articles: These define the three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial) and their powers.
Amendments: The first ten amendments are known as the Bill of Rights, which guarantee fundamental rights and freedoms.
The Constitution is a living document, meaning it can be amended to address changing needs and circumstances
Bicameralism
Bicameralism refers to a legislative system in which the legislature is divided into two separate chambers or houses. This structure is designed to provide checks and balances within the legislative process.
Here are some key points about bicameralism:
Two Chambers: Typically, one chamber is called the lower house (e.g., the House of Representatives in the U.S.) and the other is the upper house (e.g., the Senate in the U.S.).
Different Roles: The two chambers often have different roles, powers, and methods of election or appointment.
Checks and Balances: This system helps prevent the concentration of power by requiring both chambers to agree on legislation.
Bicameralism is contrasted with unicameralism, where there is only one legislative chamber
House of Representatives
The House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress, with the Senate being the upper chamber. Together, they form the bicameral legislature of the U.S. government.
Here are some key points about the House of Representatives:
Representation: Members are elected based on the population of each state, with a total of 435 representatives. Each state is guaranteed at least one representative.
Term Length: Representatives serve two-year terms.
Powers: The House has unique powers, such as initiating revenue bills, impeaching federal officials, and electing the President in the case of an Electoral College tie
Senate
The Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, which, along with the House of Representatives, forms the legislative branch of the U.S. government. Here are some key points about the Senate:
Representation: Each state is represented by two senators, regardless of its population, totaling 100 senators.
Term Length: Senators serve six-year terms, with approximately one-third of the Senate seats up for election every two years.
Powers: The Senate has unique powers, such as ratifying treaties, confirming presidential appointments (like judges and cabinet members), and conducting impeachment trials.
The Senate plays a crucial role in the legislative process, providing a check on the House of Representatives and ensuring equal representation for all states
separation of powers
Separation of powers is a fundamental principle in constitutional law that divides the responsibilities of government into three distinct branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. This division is designed to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power and to provide a system of checks and balances.
Here are the key aspects of separation of powers:
Legislative Branch: Responsible for making laws (e.g., Congress in the U.S.)1.
Executive Branch: Responsible for enforcing laws (e.g., the President and federal agencies in the U.S.).
Judicial Branch: Responsible for interpreting laws (e.g., the Supreme Court and other courts in the U.S.).
This system ensures that power is distributed and that each branch can check the others, maintaining a balance within the government
checks and balances
Checks and balances is a system designed to ensure that no single branch of government becomes too powerful. This principle is fundamental to the U.S. Constitution and involves the three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial.
Here are some key aspects of checks and balances:
Legislative Branch: Can create laws, but the President (executive branch) can veto them. However, Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds majority.
Executive Branch: The President can appoint judges and other officials, but these appointments must be confirmed by the Senate (legislative branch).
Judicial Branch: Can declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional, effectively checking the powers of the other two branches.
This system ensures that power is distributed and that each branch can limit the powers of the others, maintaining a balance within the government
vertical vs. horizontal separation/checks
Vertical and horizontal separation of powers are concepts used to distribute and balance governmental authority, ensuring no single entity has unchecked power.
Horizontal Separation/Checks
Definition: Power is divided among different branches of government at the same level, such as the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Purpose: To prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful by allowing each branch to check and balance the others.
Example: In the U.S., Congress (legislative) makes laws, the President (executive) enforces them, and the Supreme Court (judicial) interprets them.
Vertical Separation/Checks
Definition: Power is divided among different levels of government, such as federal, state, and local governments.
Purpose: To ensure that authority is distributed across various levels, allowing for more localized governance and preventing centralization of power.
Example: In the U.S., the federal government handles national defense and foreign policy, while state governments manage education and local law enforcement.
Both systems work together to create a comprehensive framework of checks and balances, promoting accountability and preventing the abuse of power
Great Compromise
The Great Compromise, also known as the Connecticut Compromise or the Sherman Compromise, was an agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention of 1787. It resolved a major dispute between states with large populations and those with smaller populations regarding representation in Congress.
Here are the key points of the Great Compromise:
Bicameral Legislature: It established a two-chambered Congress, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate.
House of Representatives: Representation is based on the population of each state, giving larger states more representatives1.
Senate: Each state, regardless of size, has two senators, ensuring equal representation for smaller states.
This compromise was crucial in shaping the structure of the U.S. government and ensuring that both large and small states were fairly represented
3/5ths Compromise
The Three-Fifths Compromise was an agreement reached during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention. It addressed how enslaved individuals would be counted for purposes of taxation and representation in the House of Representatives.
Here are the key points:
Representation and Taxation: Three-fifths of the enslaved population in each state would be counted when determining the state’s total population. This population count was used to allocate seats in the House of Representatives and to determine tax obligations.
Context: Southern states wanted to count enslaved individuals fully to increase their representation, while Northern states opposed this since enslaved individuals had no voting rights.
Impact: This compromise gave Southern states more political power than if only free persons had been counted.
The Three-Fifths Compromise was later rendered obsolete by the 14th Amendment, which granted full citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States
undemocratic elements of the U.S. Constitution
The U.S. Constitution, while a groundbreaking document for its time, contains several elements that are considered undemocratic by modern standards. Here are some key points:
Tolerance of Slavery: The original Constitution did not prohibit slavery and included provisions like the Three-Fifths Compromise, which counted enslaved individuals as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation.
Suffrage: Initially, the Constitution did not guarantee the right to vote, leaving it to the states to determine voter qualifications. This excluded women, African Americans, and Native Americans from voting.
Election of the President: The Electoral College system allows for a president to be elected without winning the popular vote, which can be seen as undemocratic.
Representation in the Senate: Each state, regardless of population, has two senators. This means smaller states have disproportionate influence compared to larger states.
Judicial Power: Judges have the power to declare laws unconstitutional, which can override the will of the majority as expressed through their elected representatives.
These elements reflect compromises made during the drafting of the Constitution to balance the interests of different states and groups, but they also highlight areas where the document falls short of modern democratic ideals.
whitewashing U.S. history
Whitewashing U.S. history refers to the practice of glossing over, minimizing, or omitting the contributions, experiences, and injustices faced by minority groups in historical narratives12. This often results in a version of history that predominantly highlights the achievements and perspectives of white individuals, while downplaying or ignoring the roles and struggles of people of color13.
Here are some key aspects of whitewashing in U.S. history:
Omission of Events: Important events involving minority groups, such as the contributions of African Americans, Native Americans, and other marginalized communities, are often left out of mainstream historical accounts.
Distortion of Facts: Historical events may be presented in a way that makes them seem more favorable to the dominant group, often ignoring the negative impacts on minority communities.
Cultural Erasure: The cultural heritage and achievements of minority groups are often underrepresented or misrepresented in historical narratives.
This practice can lead to a skewed understanding of history, perpetuating stereotypes and failing to acknowledge the full diversity and complexity of the past
social contract
The social contract is a concept in political philosophy that refers to an implicit or explicit agreement among individuals to form a society and abide by its rules and norms for mutual benefit. This agreement often involves individuals giving up some personal freedoms in exchange for protection and the benefits of a structured society.
Key Points:
Origins: The idea dates back to ancient Greek and Roman philosophy but was most notably developed during the Enlightenment by philosophers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Purpose: It aims to explain the legitimacy of governmental authority and the origin of societal norms and laws.
State of Nature: Philosophers often describe a hypothetical “state of nature” where individuals live without government or laws, leading to the formation of a social contract to avoid chaos and ensure mutual protection
presidential veto
Majority
The term “majority” generally refers to the greater number or part of something. Here are a few specific meanings:
More than half: For example, if a decision is made by a majority vote, it means more than half of the voters agreed.
Age of majority: This is the age when a person is legally considered an adult, usually 18 or 21.
Political context: The party or group with the most votes in an election or legislative body.
supermajority
A supermajority refers to a requirement for a proposal to gain a specified level of support that is greater than a simple majority. Here are some key points:
Definition: A supermajority is typically a two-thirds or three-fifths majority, rather than just more than half.
Usage: It is often used in legislative contexts to pass certain types of measures, such as constitutional amendments or to override vetoes.
Purpose: Supermajority rules can help protect minority rights by ensuring that significant changes have broad support
plurality
Elections: The number of votes a candidate receives that is more than any other candidate but not more than half of the total votes cast. For example, if a candidate wins 40% of the vote in a three-way race, they have a plurality but not a majority
veil of ignorance
The veil of ignorance is a concept introduced by philosopher John Rawls. It is a thought experiment used to determine the principles of justice that should structure a society. Here’s a breakdown:
Concept: Imagine you are designing a society from scratch, but you do not know your own position in that society. You don’t know your social status, wealth, abilities, gender, or any other personal characteristics.
Purpose: This ignorance ensures that decisions are made impartially and fairly, as you would not want to create a society that disadvantages you if you end up in a less favorable position.
Application: Rawls uses this idea to argue for principles of justice that ensure fairness and equality, such as equal basic rights and opportunities for all.
This approach helps to eliminate personal biases and promotes the creation of a just society.
3/5ths, 2/3rds, 3/4ths
- The Three-Fifths Compromise was an agreement during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention. It determined that three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted for representation and taxation purposes
- Often used in legislative contexts where a two-thirds majority is required to pass certain measures, such as overriding a veto or amending a constitution.
- voting requirements
filibuster
A filibuster is a political procedure used primarily in legislative bodies. Here are the key points:
Definition: It involves prolonged speechmaking or other tactics to delay or prevent a vote on a proposal.
Purpose: The goal is often to block or delay legislation that the filibustering party opposes.
Usage: Commonly used in the U.S. Senate, where a senator may speak for an extended period to prevent a bill from coming to a vote.
cloture
Cloture is a legislative procedure used to end a debate and bring the matter to a vote. Here are the key points:
Definition: Cloture is a method for closing a debate and causing an immediate vote to be taken on the issue at hand.
Usage: It is commonly used in the U.S. Senate to overcome a filibuster. To invoke cloture, a specific number of votes (usually three-fifths of the Senate, or 60 out of 100 senators) is required
census
A census is an official count or survey of a population, typically recording various details of individuals. Here are the key points:
Definition: A census involves systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population.
Purpose: It is usually conducted by governments to gather data on the population’s size, distribution, and various demographic details such as age, gender, occupation, and more.
reapportionment
Political Context: In the U.S., reapportionment specifically refers to the redistribution of seats in the House of Representatives among the states based on changes in population, as determined by the decennial census
redistricting
Redistricting is the process of drawing new boundaries for electoral districts. Here are the key points:
Definition: It involves redrawing the lines of electoral districts to reflect changes in population and ensure equal representation.
Purpose: The primary goal is to ensure that each district has roughly the same number of constituents, maintaining the principle of “one person, one vote”.
Frequency: In the United States, redistricting typically occurs every ten years, following the decennial census
gerrymandering
Gerrymandering is the practice of manipulating the boundaries of electoral districts to favor one party or class. Here are the key points:
Definition: It involves drawing district lines in a way that gives an unfair advantage to a particular political party or group.
Techniques: Common methods include “cracking” (diluting the voting power of the opposing party’s supporters across many districts) and “packing” (concentrating the opposing party’s voting power in one district to reduce their influence in other districts)
packing
Packing in a political context refers to a strategy used during redistricting to concentrate as many voters of one type (usually those who support a particular party) into a single electoral district. Here are the key points:
Definition: It involves drawing district boundaries to pack a large number of voters from one party into a few districts, thereby reducing their influence in other districts.
Purpose: The goal is to “waste” the votes of the packed group in a few districts where they win by large margins, while the opposing party wins more districts by smaller margins.
Contrast with Cracking: This is the opposite of “cracking,” where the voting power of the opposing party’s supporters is diluted by spreading them across many districts
cracking
Cracking in a political context refers to a gerrymandering tactic used during redistricting. Here are the key points:
Definition: Cracking involves spreading voters of a particular group or party across multiple electoral districts to dilute their voting power.
Purpose: The goal is to prevent the targeted group from forming a majority in any one district, thereby reducing their influence and making it harder for them to elect their preferred candidates.
Contrast with Packing: This is the opposite of “packing,” where voters of one group are concentrated into a single district to minimize their influence in other districts
great gerrymander of 2012
The term “Great Gerrymander of 2012” refers to the significant and controversial redistricting that took place in the United States following the 2010 Census. Here are the key points:
Context: After the 2010 Census, many states redrew their congressional and legislative district boundaries. This process, controlled by state legislatures, often led to gerrymandering.
Impact: In the 2012 elections, this redistricting resulted in a noticeable discrepancy between the popular vote and the distribution of seats. For example, one party could win a majority of seats despite receiving fewer overall votes
ranked choice voting
Ranked-choice voting (RCV) is an electoral system that allows voters to rank candidates in order of preference. Here are the key points:
How It Works: Voters list candidates by preference (first choice, second choice, etc.). If a candidate receives more than 50% of the first-choice votes, they win outright.
Elimination Process: If no candidate gets a majority, the candidate with the fewest first-choice votes is eliminated. Voters who chose the eliminated candidate as their first choice have their votes reallocated to their next choice.
Repeating Rounds: This process continues until a candidate achieves a majority.
Ranked-choice voting aims to ensure that the winning candidate has broad support and can help reduce negative campaigning and polarization
proportional representation
Proportional representation (PR) is an electoral system in which the number of seats a party or group receives in a legislative body is directly proportional to the number of votes they receive in an election. Here are the key points:
Definition: Parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes cast for them.
Mechanism: If a party wins 30% of the vote, they receive roughly 30% of the seats
voter fraud
voter suppression
the power to declare war
The power to declare war is the constitutional authority granted to Congress to officially decide to engage in armed conflict with another nation. This power is explicitly stated in Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution.
Key Points
Congressional Authority: Only Congress has the power to declare war. This means that the decision to go to war must be made collectively by the legislative branch, ensuring a democratic process.
Example: Congress declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941, following the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Presidential Limitations: While the President, as Commander-in-Chief, can direct military forces, they cannot unilaterally declare war. However, the President can respond to immediate threats and engage in military actions without a formal declaration of war, which has led to debates about the extent of executive power
explicit bias
Explicit bias refers to the conscious attitudes and beliefs we hold about a person or group. These biases are deliberate and can be either positive or negative. Unlike implicit biases, which operate unconsciously, explicit biases are those we are aware of and can openly express
implicit bias
Implicit bias refers to the unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions. Unlike explicit biases, which are deliberate and conscious, implicit biases operate automatically and without conscious awareness
first-past-the-post
First-past-the-post (FPTP) is an electoral system where the candidate who receives the most votes in a constituency wins the election. This system is also known as a plurality voting system
winner-take-all
Winner-take-all is a term used to describe a situation where the winner of a competition or election receives all the rewards or benefits, leaving nothing for the other participants
felon disenfranchisement
Felon disenfranchisement refers to the practice of restricting or revoking the voting rights of individuals who have been convicted of felony crimes
Supreme Court
The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in a country or state. In the United States, it is the apex court in the federal judiciary system
The Supreme Court has the final say on appeals from lower federal and state courts, particularly on issues involving the U.S. Constitution and federal law
Electoral College
popular vote vs. Electoral College vote
2000/2016/2020/2024 elections
Maine/Nebraska
swing states
Swing states, also known as battleground states or purple states, are states in the U.S. where the two major political parties (Democratic and Republican) have similar levels of support among voters. These states are crucial in determining the outcome of presidential elections because they can “swing” either way, depending on the election
Miles’s Law
Miles’s Law is an aphorism stating that “where you stand depends on where you sit.” This means that a person’s perspective and stance on issues are influenced by their position within an organization1
National Popular Vote Plan
January 6, 2021
On January 6, 2021, a significant and unprecedented event occurred at the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. A mob of supporters of then-President Donald Trump stormed the Capitol building with the aim of disrupting the certification of the 2020 presidential election results, in which Joe Biden was declared the winner. The rioters breached security barriers, clashed with law enforcement, vandalized property, and forced members of Congress and their staff to seek shelter. The attack resulted in multiple injuries and the death of a protester shot by police. Law enforcement, including the Capitol Police and the National Guard, eventually regained control of the Capitol. By the evening, Congress reconvened and continued the certification process, confirming Joe Biden’s victory early the next morning. Earlier that day, President Trump held a rally near the White House, where he repeated claims of election fraud and encouraged his supporters to march to the Capitol. The attack led to the second impeachment of President Trump, who was charged with incitement of insurrection. It also prompted a reevaluation of security protocols at the Capitol and other federal buildings, and numerous investigations and legal proceedings have been initiated against those involved in the riot. The January 6 attack on the Capitol is a stark reminder of the fragility of democratic institutions and the importance of safeguarding them against violence and extremism.
cult indoctrination
Cult indoctrination refers to the process by which cults systematically influence and control their members’ thoughts, behaviors, and beliefs. This process often involves various manipulative techniques designed to break down an individual’s sense of self and make them dependent on the cult
factchecking
Fact-checking is the process of verifying the accuracy of information and statements made by individuals or organizations. This practice is essential in journalism, research, and public discourse to ensure that the information being disseminated is reliable and truthful
echo chambers
An echo chamber is an environment where a person only encounters information or opinions that reflect and reinforce their own beliefs. This can happen in various settings, including social media, news media, and real-life social circles
horse race election coverage
Horse race election coverage is a style of political journalism that focuses on the competitive aspects of elections, such as who is leading or trailing in the polls, rather than on policy issues or candidates’ platforms.
information diet
An information diet is the practice of consciously managing and curating the information you consume to improve your mental well-being and productivity. It involves being selective about the sources and types of information you engage with, rather than consuming information indiscriminately
fake news
“Fake news” refers to false information that is presented as news, often with the intent to mislead or manipulate people. This can include completely fabricated stories, misleading headlines, or manipulated content designed to look like legitimate news3. The term gained significant attention during the 2016 U.S. presidential election but has been around since the late 19th century
birtherism
“Birtherism” refers to the false belief that former U.S. President Barack Obama was not born in the United States and was therefore ineligible to be president. This conspiracy theory gained traction during Obama’s presidency and was widely debunked
surveillance capitalism
Surveillance capitalism is a term coined by Shoshana Zuboff to describe a new economic system where companies collect and commodify personal data for profit. This involves monitoring individuals’ online activities to gather data, which is then used to target advertisements, influence behavior, and generate revenue
positive intermittent reinforcement
Positive intermittent reinforcement refers to a behavioral conditioning technique where a desired behavior is rewarded inconsistently and unpredictably. Unlike continuous reinforcement, where every instance of the behavior is rewarded, intermittent reinforcement only provides rewards at certain intervals or after a certain number of instances. This method is particularly effective in maintaining learned behaviors and making them more resistant to extinction.
For example, in a classroom setting, a teacher might occasionally praise a student for participating, rather than doing so every time. This unpredictability can keep the student motivated to participate regularly, hoping for the next reward
taxation without representation
Taxation without representation is a phrase that originated during the American Revolution. It describes a situation where a populace is required to pay taxes to a government authority without having any say or representation in that government’s policies. This slogan was famously used by American colonists to protest against British rule, arguing that it was unfair to be taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives
citizen muscle vs. consumer muscle
Consumer Muscle:
This refers to the actions and decisions we make as consumers, such as purchasing goods and services.
It’s heavily influenced by advertising and the market, encouraging us to buy more and often1.
Exercising consumer muscle often focuses on personal satisfaction and convenience.
Citizen Muscle:
This involves participating in civic activities and working towards the common good.
It includes actions like voting, community organizing, and advocating for social change.
Exercising citizen muscle emphasizes collective well-being and democratic engagement
free rider problem
The free rider problem is an economic issue where individuals benefit from resources, goods, or services without paying for them or contributing their fair share. This often occurs with public goods, which are non-excludable (everyone can use them) and non-rivalrous (one person’s use doesn’t reduce availability for others).
For example, if a city builds a public park, everyone can enjoy it, even those who didn’t contribute to its funding. This can lead to underfunding and overuse of the resource, as people rely on others to cover the costs
income/wealth inequality
Income inequality refers to the uneven distribution of income within a population. It highlights the gap between the highest and lowest earners. Factors contributing to income inequality include globalization, technological advancements, and biases based on gender and race.
Wealth inequality, on the other hand, deals with the distribution of assets and net worth among individuals or households. This includes properties, investments, and savings minus any debts. Wealth inequality tends to be more pronounced than income inequality because wealth can accumulate over generations
