Final Exam Flashcards
Galen’s four personality types
Sanguine: blood - cheerful and compassionate
Melancholic: black bile - gloomy and pessimistic
Phlegmatic: phlegm - laid-back, calm and unexcitable
Choleric: yellow bile - bad tempered and irritable
Sheldon’s body somatotypes 1940’s
- Basing personality off body shape
Ectomorph - Thin tall lightly muscled
- introverted
- Intelligent
- Socially noxious
Mesomorph
- hard , muscular body
- Assertive
- bold
- adventurous
Endomorph
- Underdeveloped muscles, round shaped
- Sociable
- Good humoured
- Relaxed
Stimulating the substantia nigra
causes symptoms of depression
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Rapidly changing magnetic fields to temporarily turn off areas of the brain activity
Creates a virtual lesion
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
Has shown that the right frontal lobe is important for making morally relevant decisions such as whether to punish someone
These techniques are great to study what areas do what and could be useful for treating brian disorders
charles whitman
July 31st 1966 charles whitman had a brain tumour affecting his amygdala causing him to shoot and kill people
The anterior cingulate
Important for the experience of normal emotion
The front part of the cingulate, a brain structure that runs from the
front to the back of the brain in the middle, just above the corpus
callosum. The anterior cingulate is believed to be important for the
experience of normal emotion and self-control.
hypothalamus
A complex structure near the lower centre of the brain that has
direct connections to many other parts of the brain and is involved
in the production of psychologically important hormones; thought to
be important for mood and motivation.
hormone
A biological chemical that affects parts of the body some distance
from where it is produced.
amygdala
A structure located near the base of the brain that is believed to
play a role in emotion, especially negative emotions such as anger
and fear.
Links perceptions with emotional meaning
Involved in assessing threat and reward
Associated with anxiety and fearfulness
hippocampus
A complex structure deep within the brain, behind the
hypothalamus, that plays an important role in memory processes.
cortex
The outside portion of an organ (see adrenal cortex); in the context
of this book, the cortex refers to the outer layers of the brain.
neocortex
The outer layer of the cortex of the brain, regarded as uniquely
human.
frontal cortex
The front part of the cortex of the brain. Divided left and right into
the two frontal lobes, this part of the brain is associated with
cognitive functioning such as planning, foresight, and
understanding.
electroencephalography (EEG)
A technique for measuring the brain’s electrical activity by placing
electrode sensors on the outside of the skull.
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A technique for using delicate magnetic sensors on the outside of
the skull to detect brain activity.
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
A technique for imaging brain activity by using a powerful magnet
to help detect blood flow in the brain.
positron emission tomography (PET)
A technique for creating images of brain activity by injecting a
radioactive tracer into the blood and then, using a scanner, finding
where in the brain the blood is being metabolised.
somatic marker hypothesis
Neurologist Antonio Damasio’s idea that the bodily (somatic),
emotional component of thought is a necessary part of problem
solving and decision making
Emotions enable people to make decision that maximise good outcomes and minimise bad ones
corpus callosum
The thick bundle of nerve fibres connecting the right and left halves
of the brain.
Hans Eysenck = Eysenck’s Big 3
Introversion - extraversion
Neuroticism-stability
Psychoticism
the three dimensions are independent (orthogonal) such that scores on one dimension indicated nothing about scores on either of the other dimensions
Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)
Connects cerebral cortex with rest of brain
Regulates arousal (damage can lead to permanent sleep)
Eysenck linked ARAS to extraversion/introversion
Lemon juice test
Threshold of arousal - lower in low extraversion
Cortical arousal higher in introverts than extraverts
therefore , introverts less likely to seek out new experiences and people
Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory
Behavioural approach system
fight/flight/freeze system
RST and the Big Five
Appeal of Gray’s Reinforcement sensitivity Theory
The appeal of this theory, rather than the Big Five, is that biologically-based theories look at trying to explain the basis of personality traits. The Big Five is very much a model that describes personality traits.
Behavioural approach system (BAS)
- Reward sensitivity
Reward interest - dopamine (tendency to notice and seek rewarding sitnations or activities)
Goal drive persistence - serotonin (put in continued effort and persistence to attain a reward)
Reward reactivity - endogenous opioids (respond positively to attained rewards)
Impulsivity - testosterone (engage in risky or unplanned behaviours)
Behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
Detects goal conflict
Emotion = anxiety
activates when both the BAS and FFFS are activated
increased arousla and checking/vigialnce
resolves conflict bewteen them
defensive appraoch
Updated in 2000
Three biologically derived motivational systems
BAS - behavioural approach systems
Fight/flight freeze system
Behavioural inhibition system
Fight flight freeze system
Threat detection system
Defensive avoidance
Threat detection can result in fight flight or freeze
Associated emotion = fear
Likned to panic
Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST)
Largely developed in uk
Tends to be used mostly outside the USA
advantages/disadvantages of RST
- Looks to explain causal basis
- Bust still developing good measures
- Making stirred in that direction
- Some coming together of late
- Can’t see how the brains function
The Big Five and RST
Largely developed in the usa
Advantages/disadvantages of the big five
- Very well-developed measures
- But, only just looking at causal basis (descriptive) at least until recently
The brain and the big 5
Stability (Emotional estalbiitly & Agreeableness & Conscientiousness) is associated with serotonin
Plasticity (Extraversion & Openness )is associated with dopamine
Neuroticism
Withdrawal: BIS
Volatility: FFFS
Extraversion
Assertiveness: BAS (Reward pursuit)
Enthusiasm: BAS (Pleasure System)
Openness to experience
BAS
Conscientiousness
BAS (Low) Impulsiveness;
(Low) Trait BIS;
(high) State BIS
Agreeableness
BAS?
Extra Personal Space
A space outside arms reach that contains things an individual desires.
Evaluating biological perspectives
Pros
- New, intriguing
- Focus on causal mechanism rather than just descriptors
Cons
- No comprehensive bio theory
- Still determining specific neural underpinnings
Causes and Effects
- Neurological research has guided development of personality theory and assessment
- Personality research has helped to highlight brain functions
- Brains are always situated within bodies within environments: personality is the sum of the expression of that interaction
Peri Personal Space
A space within arm’s reach of an individual that typically contains things they own and control.
Personality & Learning - Conscientiousness
is more strongly related to academic (vs. job) performance
Motivated strategies for learning questionnaire
Intended to measure learning styles that influence academic performance
Strategies scales
- Five cognitive/metacognitive strategies
- critcal thinking
- effort regulation
- elaboration
- rehearsal
- help seeking
- Four resource management strategies
- metacogntiive self regulation
- organisation
- peer learning
- Time & study environment
Learning styles -Agreeableness
Friendly students
compliant
manage time better
Personality & Learning - extraversion and neuroticism
have a stronger relation with job (vs. academic) performance
Personality & Learning - Agreeableness and openness
yield similar effects for both job and academic performance
help seeking
i try to identify students in specific university courses whom i can ask for help if necessary
Learning styles -Emotional stability
Maintains focus in face of distress
Less avoidance and discouragement
Less rumination
Personality & Learning
The association between personality and performance varies in meaningful ways across performance categories.
It remains unclear whether personality has a causal impact on performance.
Although personality may cause performance, it is also possible that performance trends initiate changes in personality or that third variables such as socioeconomic status account for both personality and performance
Learning styles -Conscientiousness
Effort regulation
disciplined approach to work
good time management
maintains focus on tasks
Learning styles
Kolb (accommodators; reflectors; assimilators; convergers)
Honey and mumford (activist;reflector; theorist; pragmatist)
Fleming (visual; auditory; reading-writing; kinaesthetic)
Assumes that meshing teaching with style enhances learning
Intuitively attractive, especially to learners
Little supporting evidence
Actually reverse-meshing may help (desirable difficulty) (people learn more when they learn in their no desired style.)
Learning styles -Extraversion
Get noticed by teachers
More exposed to novel environments and feedback
Learning styles -Openness to experience
Curiosity
Enjoys effortful learning activities
Metacognition and effort regulation
rehearsal
i memorize key words to eremind me of important concepts in class
Crititcal thinking
i try to play around with ideas of my own related to what i am learning in university courses
Effort Regulation
i work hard to do well in university courses even if i don’t like what i am doing
metacognitive self regulation
i try to change the way i study in order to fit the course requirements and the instructors teaching style
elaboration
i try to apply ideas from course readings in other class activities such as lecure and discussion
organisation
i make simple charts, diagrams and tables to explain material to a classmate or friend
peer learning
when studying for exams i often try to explain the material to a classmate or friend
time and study environment
i make sure that i keep up wit hteh weekly readings and assignments for courses
Orignial Meta analysis from 67 studies, correlations between strategy and academic performance
Significant findings
- effort regulation
- elaboration
- metacognitive self regulation
- time and study environment
2022 study Meta analysis from 67 studies, correlations between strategy and academic performance
Significant findings
- effort regulation
- elaboration
- metacognitive self regulation
- time and study environment
additionally
- rehearsal
- organisation
RST and academic performance
RST has links to learning but doesn’t have evidence that leads to better performance
Big 5 and learning strategies
critcal thinking - openness
effort regulation - openness & conscientiousness
elaboration - openness & conscientiousness
rehearsal - Agreeableness & conscientiousness
help seeking - extraversion
metacogntiive self regulation - openness
organisation - conscientiousness
peer learning - extraversion
Time & study environment - conscientiousness
RST and learning strategies
Goal drive persistence drives most of it
- Effort regulation
- elaboration
- rehearsal
- metacogntive self regulation
- organisation
- time and study environment
driven by Reward interest
- Critical thinking
- Help seeking
- peer learning
Applications of personality
Learning
Psych
Social media use
Addiction
Work performance
Health
And more
Reward sensitivity and eating
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating disorder
Preference for high fat/sugar foods
Food cravings
Eating in response to external food cues
Card Arrangement Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (CARROT)
Assesses increase in speed of performance on simple card sorting task when financially rewarded
Carrot score - the change in number of cards sorted during the rewarded trail compared with the non-rewarded trails
control group had low carrot score
bulimia had 1.5 carrot score
bulimia + alchohol gorup had 2.2 carrot score
Covid isolation
extraverts and introverts were asked to spend a week engaging in higher levels of extravert-typical behaviour (being talkative, sociable, etc).
Extraverts reaped several benefits including enhanced mood and feelings of authenticity.
introverts experienced no benefits, and reported feeling tired and irritable.
Covid Conscientiousness
People high in conscientiousness, who are more organised, less distractible and also more adaptable, will find it easier to set up and stick to a structured daily schedule, as many experts recommend.
Covid Agreeableness
People high in agreeableness, who tend to be polite, compassionate and cooperative, will be better equipped to negotiate life in the pockets of family members or housemates.
Covid Openness
People high in openness to experience, who tend to be curious and imaginative, will likely become absorbed in books, music and creative solutions to the humdrum of lockdown
Covid Neuroticism
In contrast, people high in neuroticism, who are more susceptible to stress and negative emotions than their more stable peers, will be most at risk for anxiety and depression during these challenging times.
Personality-targeted interventions
Age of onset one of the best predators of future drinking problems
For each year drinking onset is delayed= 10% reduction in odds of alcohol dependence
School based drug interventions
Substance Use Risk Profile (SURPS)
Early intervention of drug and alcohol use is important as early onset of use is a strong predictor of future problems
Universal intervention programs have been shown to increase drug and alcohol use
Some traits are linked to early onset of drug and alcohol use
The SURPS measures 4 traits linked to drug and alcohol use
personality - targeted interventions appear to be more effective than selecting at risk adolescents based on current drug use
School based drug interventions
Universal interventions
- Take charge of your life (TCYL) program
- 83 schools clusters (USA): 41 tx, 42 control
- 18529 students in the 7th and 9th grade
- Presented by police officers trained in drug abuse resistance education (DARE)
- tobacco , alcohol and marijuana use in 11 grade
Tobacco and alcohol use was GREATER for those who were in the treatment program (compared to those in the control schools)
Effect mainly for
- Those who were not using substances at baseline in treatment group
- This is an iatrogenic effect (the experiment group does the opposite to intended)
A limitation of universal programs is their failure to address robust predictors of substance misuse such as personality and vulnerability to psychopathology
Substance Use Risk Profile (SURPS)
Based on 4 main personality traits
- Sensation seeking / thrill seeking
- impulsivity (not thinking things through)
- Anxiety - sensitivity
- Negative thinking
Personality rather than drug use per se is the target
Drug use is not used to select for participation in the program
Interventions are designed to change how individual with specific personality risk factors cope with their vulnerability
Preventure trail
Uk efficacy RCT
368 year 9 students (14 yrs)
CBT approach, 2 sessions, 90 mins
Targeted personality suing the SURPS (SS, Imp, AS,H) vs control
Followed over 12 months
Personality and Well-being
Wellbeing is a multidimensional and complex construct
3 taxonomies of well being
Subjective well being (SWB)
- Aka Hedonic well being
Psychological well being (PWB)
- Less emotion based
The PERMA model
- Pillars of well being
Subjective well being (SWB)
Satisfaction with life
Positive emotions
Negative emotions
Psychological well being (PWB)
Autonomy
Environmental mastery
Personal growth
Positive relations
Self acceptance
Purpose in life
The PERMA model
Positive emotions
Engagement
Relationships
Meaning
Accomplishment
Big 5 and well being
Extraversion = positive affect
Neuroticisms = negative affect
(very broad approach)
Investigated the association between deyoung’s big 5 aspects and the dimensions of well being
Collected data from 706 americans
Found that one aspect within each domains seemed to be more strongly associated with the well being dimensions than other aspects
Similar to previous research the enthusiasm aspect of extraversion and the withdrawal aspect of neuroticism were strongly associated with a range of well being dimensions
Extraversion and well being
Enthusiasm
- High: satisfaction with life
Positive emotionality
Positive relations
Self acceptance
Engagement
Relationships
meaning
Accomplishments
- Low: autonomy
Assertiveness
- High: autonomy
Neuroticism and well being
Withdrawal
-Low: satisfaction with life
Positive emotionality
autonomy
Environmental mastery
Personal growth
Positive relations
Self acceptance
Purpose in life
Relationships
Meaning
accomplishment
-High:
Negative emotionality
Volatility
-Low: positive relations
-High: negative emotionality
Agreeableness and well being
Compassion
- High: personal growth
Positive relations
Purpose in life
Meaning
Conscientiousness and well being
Industriousness
-High: environmental mastery
Positive relations
Self acceptance
Purpose in life
Meaning
accomplishment
Openness and well being
Intellect
- High: autonomy
Personal growth
engagement
Accomplishment
Openness
- High: personal growth
engagement
RST and well being
Reward sensitivity
- High: satisfaction with life
Positive affect
Emotional well being
Psychological well being
Social well being
Hope
FFFS
- High: negative affect
- Low: satisfaction with life
Positive affect
Emotional well being
Psychological well being
Hope
Not much on the BIA
Howard Friedman and Margaret Kern (2014) list six indicators of health
Having the ability to do the things one wants to do
Feeling good
Having supportive social relationships and
being able to support others
Being productive and getting things done
Having good memory capacity and being
able to make good decisions
Staying alive
Type A personality
Behaviour pattern
Hyper competitiveness
Achievement striving
Impatience
Excessive job involvement
Emphatic speech
Overreactivity
Hostility
Type A personality is seen to be linked to heart disease
Mostly due to hostility, not achievement striving
Criticism of funding by tobacco companies
Wanting to blame the individual rather than smoking
Conscientiousness
Most clearly associated with illness longevity and quality of life
Related to behaviours that make good health
- Persistence
- Self control
- Long term planning to protect health
- Life circumstances (less likely unemployment)
Type B personality
Behaviour pattern
Laid back go with the flow attitude
Emotionality
Positive emotionality = better physical health
Negative emotionality = poor physical health
Linked to extraversion
- Positive emotionality
Neuroticism
- Negative emotionality
Associated with longevity and illness
Relationship is complicated
Linked to behaviours and stress
RST and Health
RST may predict COVID-19 infection outcome and vulnerability
464 uni students tested
Covid symptoms associated with the BAS reward responsiveness scale of the RST-PQ- showing a protective factor
-But specific to men in the study
No association with FFFS or BIS
Aligns with 2 studies that found BAS associated with
- Conforming with covid precautions
- Coping better with covid related stress
replication crisis
This crisis began in 2011 with three intersecting events that cast doubt on the legitimacy of research findings, notably in the area of social psychology and led to the Open Science movement.
Finding that research studies could not be replicated
Independent researchers following the same procedures as original studies could not find comparable results
Led to the ongoing questioning of established phenomenon and recommendations for the scrutiny of research practices
P-hacking
hacking round in one’s data until one finds the necessary degree of stat significance allowing one to public findings
Open science
a set of emerging principles intended to improve the transparency of scientific research and that encourage fully reporting all methods and variables used in a study, reporting studies that failed as well as succeeded and sharing data among scientists.
Questionable research practices (QRP’s)
- P-hacking
- Hacking data until you get the required p value to publish a study
- Used a real dataset to demonstrate that listening to the beatles song when i’m 64 made people younger
- Obviously not possible
- By using computer simulations to demonstrate that various decisions about data analyses made the results significant
The reproducibility project
Reproducibility - reproducing results when reanalysing the original data
Replication - replicating results from new data sets
Started in nov 2011 by developing a protocol for selection and conduct of the replications
270 contributing author groups
looked at the effect size as well as significance
Converted the results to correlations (recall this in the person situation debate)
P-hacking
Removing participants
Not reporting all the conditions
Stapel (2011)
made it all up
Nov 2011
Fabricated data
50 papers retracted
Summary of Reproducibilitiy findings
Only 36% of the replications were successful (produced significant results)
The average effect size of the relocations was around half that of the original studies
Weaker, more surprising findings were less likely to replicate
Social psychology findings were less than half as likely to replicate as findings in cognitive psych
Harking
Hypotheses After the Results are Known
The life outcomes of personality replication project (LOOPR)
Replication crisis: backlash
- A lot of backlash from established researchers (who typically benefit from flashy novel findings) as to this move to open science and the replication initiatives
- Tone
- Shameless little bullies
- Methodological terrorists
A revival (again) of the social/personality psych debate
This time by Prof. Roy Baumeister
- Proposed ego-depletion
- Charting the future of social psych on stormy seas: winners, losers, and recommendations. Journal of experimental psych
LOOPR project
Personality is used to predict things
And life outcomes
postitively associated with both measures of subjective well being
facebook social comparison was negateviely associated with both measures of subjective wellbeing
BIS was negatively associated with both measures of subjectvitve wellbeing as indivudals who are high in BIA are prone to rumination, these individuals should be mindful how frequently they compare themeseves to others
BAS factors were postiively associated with both measures of subjective well being except for imulsivitiy which was negatively associated iwth eudaimonic well being
