final exam Flashcards
1
Q
functions of urinary system
A
excretion, elimination (urination), homeostatic regulation
2
Q
urinary system does what
A
removes metabolic wates
kindeys remove metabolic waters and produce urine
3
Q
three metabolic wastes
A
urine
creatinine (breakdown of creatine phosphate)
uric acid
4
Q
organic wastes
A
dissolved in bloodstream
eliminated only when dissolved in urine
removal
-to remove wastes, flush out with water -> water loss
5
Q
damaged kidney leads to
A
build-up/ elevated creatinine in blood
6
Q
excess sodium or potassium
A
pulls water with it
7
Q
urinary system functions
A
-regulates blood volume (plasma) and pressure by adjusting water lost in urine
-regulats plasma ion concentrations
-sodium, potassium, chloride
-calcium controlled by calcitrol
8
Q
homeostatic functions of urinary system
A
stabilize blood pH
controls loss of hydrogen and bicarbonate
-conserves nutrients by preventing loss while removing metabolic wastes
-assists liver in detox of positions
9
Q
organs of urinary system
A
kidneys: produce urine
urinary tract: eliminates urine
-ureters
-urinary bladder
-urethra
-urination or micturition: eliminates urine
10
Q
ureters
A
transport urine towards urinary bladder
11
Q
urinary bladder
A
`temporarily stores urine prior to urination
12
Q
urethra
A
conducts urine to exterior
13
Q
parts of kidney
A
renal pelvis
hilium
renal cortex
renal medulla
fibrous capsule
14
Q
kidney functions on blood
A
blood -> filters
whatever is supposed to come out on the other end comes out, others are retained in blood
-filtrate: comes out on the other end
15
Q
what is not filtered by kidneys
A
big protiens
red blood cells
16
Q
after eliminated as urine
A
goes to minor calyx -> major calyx -> hilium/ renal pelvis -> ureter
17
Q
renal artery
A
blood vessel branches/ divides and gets smaller until it reaches glomerulus
18
Q
glomerulus
A
wrapped in blood vessels oi a ball
-pushes against the nephron
19
Q
cortical nephron
A
initial filtration of all plasmas in blood
20
Q
hydrostatic pressure
A
like a pison that pushes down on water, trapped surface but water flows through
21
Q
oncotic pressure
A
two containers, semipermiable membrane allows water through, not particles B -> A
22
Q
cortical vs juxtamedullary nephron
A
cortical: spans cortex
juxtamedullary: spans medulla, longer
23
Q
affarent
A
brings blood in from renal artery -> glomerulus -> bowmans capsule (filtrate)
24
Q
efferent
A
“exit”
non-filtrates (dont pass filtrate)
25
functions of nephron
manage products
-remove waste via filtration
-reabsorb what you filtered iyt but need back
blood volume regulation
-retain water
-push into urine
26
arteriole vs tubule
arteriole: inside
tubule: outside
27
glomerular filtration
-hydrostatic pressure
-across filtration membrane
-small solute molecules pass thru
-larger molecules cant
28
three components of glomerular filtration
-fenestered endothilium
-basement membrane
-foot processes of podocytes
29
podocytes
tentacles; suction to side of glomerulus
30
innermost layer of veesel
endothilium
31
nephrotic syndrome
podocyte foot processes lose electric charge
32
glomerular capillaries
fenestered
small pores
prevent passage of blood cells
33
basement membrane
selective
only allow small plasma proteins, nutrients and ions
34
filtration membrane
renal corpuscle
blood pressure forces water and small solutes into capsular membrane
sodium: protein-free filtrate
35
renal corpuscle is a combination of
glomerulus and bowmans capsule
36
filtration
BP forces water and solutes across walls of glomerular capillaries
37
reabsorption
movt of water and solutes from filtrate -> peritubular fluid
38
secretion
transport of solutes from peritubular fluid -> tubular fluid
39
PCT
secretion and reabsorption mostly occur here
40
peritubular
outside/along tubules are wrapped within blood vessels
-add and remove things
41
glomerular filtration is balanced by
hydrostatic pressure (one direction) and colloid osmotic pressure (sometimes pulls in other direction; if semi-permeable membrane, fluid in both compartments but one has more solute in it, water goes where theres more solute)
42
Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP)
flows into efferent arteiole in smaller luminal diameter
-GHP is higher than hydrostatic pressure in peripheral capillaroes
-pushes water and solutes out of bloodstream into filtrate
43
in glomerular space and peritubular space
oncotic pull - whichever has more protiens = greater oncotic pull of plasma into it
44
factors controlling glomerular filtration
GHP: pushed onto tubule filtrate
BCOP: pressure of proteins i in glomerulus pulling water back
NFP: net pressure
CsHP: small amount of hydrostatic pressure of capsule pushing back
45
net filtration pressure
add up all pressures
46
creatinine
kidney function
47
GFR
pushing of filtering plasma into tubular fluid
-125 mL/min
-net filtration pressure determines GFR
48
Renal corpuscle filtration
-passive
-solutes entering capsular space
-glucose, free fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins
49
glucose, fatty acids, amino acids and vitamins are reabsorbed
renal tubules and collecting system
50
renal tubule functions
reabsorb organic nutrients, water in filtrate, secrete wastes that did not enter filtrate at glomerulus
51
functions of PCT
reabsorption of organic nutrients, ions, water
-secretion
52
decending limb of nephron loop
freely permeable to water
reabsorbs sodium and chloride from tubular fluid
53
three processes at DCT
secretion of ions, acids, drugs and toxins into tubule
reabsorption of sodium and calcium
reabsorption of water
54
ascending limb of nephron loop
impermeable to water
removes sodium and chloride
very long in juxtamedullary nephrons (nephrons downto medulla)
55
reabsorption at DCT
-transport Na and Cl out of tubular fluid
-reabsorb Na in exchange for K
56
collecting system
transports tubular fluid from nephrons to renal pelvis
determines final osmotic conc and volume of urine
57
when body needs more water reabsorption
release ADH from posterior pathway
-insertion of aquaporins - water is recollected and leaks into the body
58
reabsorption and secretion in collecting system
Aldosterone: salt absorption
-opposed by ANP
ADH: water reabsorption
-secretion is suppressed by ANP
59
too much ANP
too much fluid -> heart congestion (to get rid of fluif)
60
aldoesterone functions
retains fluid and maintains BP
61
ANP and BNP
released in heart in response to excessive blood volume
62
reabsorption in collecting system
sodium ion reabsorption
- Na exchanged for K
bicarbonate ion reabsorption
-HCO3 exchanged for Cl
-urea reabsorption by diffusion
63
urea is a biproduct of
protien metabolism
-not poisonous to body, excreted freely in urine
64
2 measures for determining health of kidneys
creatinine
GFR
blood, urea, nitrogen (BUN)
65
hypokalemia
reduction in plasma potassium conc
-produced by aldosterone stimulation
-sodium maintains BP
66
ANP
opposes secretion of aldosterone
-works on renal tubule pulls in Na, rids K
67
parathyroid hormone
calcium reabsorption at DCT
68
hydrogen ion secretion
hydrogen generated by dissociation of carbonic acid
-bicarbonate diffuses into bloodstream to prevent changes in plasma pH
69
hydrogen ion secretion functions
-acidifies tubular fluid
-elevates blood pH
-accelerates when blood pH falls
70
pH in blood decreases in
metabolic acidosis
ketoacidosis
71
acidosis
when pH is below 7.4
72
alkalosis
when pH is above 7.4
73
control of blood pH
aldosterone stimulates H+ secretion
-prolonged aldosterone causes alkalosis/ hypokalemia -> high pH
high blood pH
74
in response to acidosis
ties up H+ and yields bicarbonate ions
generates bicarbonate ions to buffer plasma
75
how urine is concentrated
countercurrent multiplication
-exchanges fluids moving in opposite directions
76
multiplication
exchange increases as movement of fluid continues
77
medullary osmotic gradient
1200 mOsm/L
Na and Cl pump out
remainder from urea
78
descending thin limb down
conc as you go down medulla, water is pulled out of osmotic gradient
-tubular fluid lets water go into medulla the lower it goes down
79
thick ascending limb
as it goes up, water cant leave but sodium can
80
role of urea
as water is reabsorbed, concentration of urea in tubular fluid rises
81
obligatory water reabsorption
85% of filtrate volume
82
facultative water reabsorption
DCT and collecting system
-15% filtrate volume
83
vasa recta
returns reabsorbed solutes and water to general circulation
-countercurrent exchange
84
as blood in vasa recta descends into medulla
increases in osmotic concentration
-solutes absorbed in descending portion do not diffuse out in ascending portion
85
reabsorption
goes back into body and blood vessels
86
secretion
removal
87
normal urine
clear, sterile liquid
-depends on osmotic movement of water
-yellow: urobilin
88
ureter to bladder
transitional epithelium
89
peristaltic contractions
sweep along ureter
forcing urine toward urinary bladder
90
urinary bladder
hollow, muscular organ
temporary storage for urine
1 L of urine
91
detrusor
main bladder muscle
92
center of trigone
leads to ureter
93
neck of urinary bladder
internal urethral sphinter
-involuntary control of urine discharge (brain controls)
94
urinary bladder innvervation
parasympathetic fibers
"rest and digest"
95
urethra
transports urine from neck to exterior of body
96
external urethral sphinter
voluntary control
-voluntary relaxation permits urination
97
urine voiding reflex
stretch receptors send impulses to pontine micturition center
-detrusor contracts
-internal and external urethral sphinters relax
98
Juxtaglomerular complex (JGC)
blood pressure and filtration formation
-consists of:
macula densa
JGC
extraglomeular mesangial cells
99
macula densa
chemoreceptors
baroreceptors (pressure)
100
juxtaglomerular cells
smooth muscle cells
baroreceptors and secrete renin (angiotensin -> aldosterone)
101
extraglomerular mesangial cells
between affarent and efferent arterioles
-provide feedback control
102
homeostasis when blood flow to kidneys decrease
-JGC releases renin
-Renin forms angiotensin I
-ACE converts I -> II
-AGII constricts efferent arterioles
-AGII increases aldosterone
-Aldosterone increases Na+ retention
-Increased ADH -> increases fluid retention -> increased cardiac output
103
angiotensin II
increased aldosterone
increased arterial pressures
stimulates thirst center
increased ADH
increased systemic BP and BV and restored normal GFR
104
aldosterone
Na pumps and channels
along DCT and collecting duct
reduces Na+ lost in urine
105
natriuretic peptides
released in response to stretched walls when too much blood volume
-dilation of afferent and constriction of efferent
-increase GFR
-more urine production, decreased BV and BP
106
vasodilation of affarent and efferent arterioles
decreases GFR, blood pressure goes down
107
autonomic regulation of GFR
sympathetic activation
-constricts affarent glomerular artioles
-decreases GFR
-slows filtrate production
108
acid base compensation
fully: pH is normal
partially: 3 values abnormal
uncompensated: PaCO2 or HCO3 is normal, other is abnormal
109
fluid balance
water gained = water lost
110
water loss
urinary system
-feces, perspiration, fever
111
body water content
mostly in ICF
112
ICF
inside cells
113
ECF
interstitial fluid, plasma
114
barriers
endothilieum, cell membrane
115
sources of water loss
skin and lungs
feces
sweat glands
116
fluid shifts
ICF volume greater than ECF
-ICF: water reserve
-prevents large osmotic changes in ECF
117
when ECF loses water
hypertonic
118
when osmotic water shifts from ICF into ECF
decreases ICF volume
-dehydration
119
severe water loss results from
perspiration
inadequate water
repeated vomitting
diarhea: determined by bacteria
120
homeostatic responses
ADH and renin secretion retain fluids
-increase fluid intake
121
RAS system causes thirst
hypothalamus and medulla
-detect loss of water -> thirst
122
distribution of water gains
when water is gained but no electrolytes
-ECF volume increases
-ECF becomes hypotonic to ICF
-fluid shifts from ECF to ICF
123
water gained results in hyperhydration (water excess)
excess water shifts into ICF
burst cells
disrupt normal cell functions
sodium low = fluid shifts into the cell
124
signs of hyperhydration
low Na+
water intoxication: loss of memory
125
hormones that regulate fluid and electrolyte
ADH
aldoestrone
BNP, ANP
126
electrolytes
in ICF:
-potassium high inside
in ECF
-sodium high
127
electrolyte balance
when gains and losses are equal
-affect water balance, cell functions
-rates of absoprtion across digestive tract with rate of loss at kidneys
128
dehydration
countercurrent multiplication
-loop of Henle -> medulla
-collecting ducts
129
sodium
dominant cation in ECF
130
potassium
dominant cation in ICF
131
sodium balance
Na+ in ECF
-Na uptake across digestive epithilieum
-Na excretion in urine and perspiration
132
If gains exceed losses
total Na content of ECF rises
-more gain = Na+ in ECF increases
133
if losses exceed gains
Na+ content of ECF declines
-more loss = Na in ECF decreases
134
increase in ECF
-increases volume
-increases BP
135
hyponatremia
water rises
hyperhydration
136
hypernatremia
less water
water content declines
137
homeostasis disturbed by increasing Na+ level in ECF
-osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
-ADH secretion
-kidney reabsorption or thirst
-ECF osmolarity increases, water leaves ICF, ECF increases, Na decreases
138
ECF volume increases leads to
cardiac muscle cells release natriuetic peptides
-hypothalamus, kidneys, vessels
-increased Na loss in urine
-increased water loss in urine
-ADH inhibition
-vasodilation
139
decreasing ECF volume
baroreceptors and kidneys - renin - AGII - aldosterone -decreased Na loss in urine, water loss, increased thirst, increased cardiac output and vasoconstriction
increased ADH release
140
hypokalemia
deficiency in K in blood
141
acid base balance
balances hydrogen ions
if pH is off: protien denaturation (unwind); abnormal functioning
142
buffer
prevents the pH from changing
-add or remove H+
143
kidneys secrete
H+
-reabsorb bicarbonate
144
lungs
blow off co2
145
high pH (alkalosis)
slowed breathing
-retains CO2
146
lungs dont work
kidneys kick in
absorb more bicarbonate, rids hydrogen
147
equation
H2O + CO2 -> bicarbonate -> H+ + HCO
148
acidosis
lungs increase repiration
gets rid of CO2
149
respiratory compensation
change in respiratory rate
stabilizes pH of ECF
150
renal compensation
changes in H and HCO3 secretion or reabsorption by kidneys
-kidneys assist lungs by eliminating any CO2
151
hydrogen ions
secreted into tubular fluid along pct, dct, collecting system
152
respiratory response to acidosis
increased respiratory rate decreases Pco2, converting carbonic acid to water
153
renal response to acidosis caused by adding H+
kidney tubules respond by
1) secreting H+
2) removing CO2
3) reabsorbing bicarbonate to help replenish the bicarbonate reserve
154
respiratory response to alkalosis caused by adding H+
decreased respiratory rate increases Pco2 by convertung Co2 molecules to carbonic acid
155
renal response to alkalosis caused by adding H+
kidney tubules respond by conserving H+ and secreting HCO3
156
how to regulate if something is too basic
lungs decrease respiratory rate -> co2 buildup -> combines with water to form carbonic acid -> bicarbonate and hydrogen
157
regulation of acid base balance
captured H+ must be:
-tied up in water through CO2 removal at lungs
-secretion at kidneys
158
three major buffer systems
phosphate: ICF
protien: ICF and ECF
carbonic acid-bicarbonate: ECF
159
hemoglobin in buffer system
CO2 in plasma diffuses into RBCs and converted to carbonic acid
160
as carbonic acid dissociates
bicarbonate ions diffuse into plasma
hydrogen ions are buffered by hemoglobin molecules
161
respiratory acidosis
hypercapnia: too much CO2 in blood
hypoventilation
acute v chronic
162
respiratory alkalosis
hypocapnia
hyperventilation
acute v chronic
163
metabolic acidosis
H+ (impaired renal excretion), loss of bicarb, lactic acid, ketoacidosis
164
low oxygen results in
generation of lactic acid
165
metabolic acidosis
Pco2 normal or decreased
166
respiratory acidosis
PCo2 increased
caused by hypoventilation
167
chronic respiratory acidosis
HCO3 increased
emphysema, athsma
168
acute respiratory acidosis
HCO3 normal
respiratory failure,CNS damage, pneumothorax
169
metabolic alkalosis
Pco2 increased
ex. vomitting, loss of gastric acid
170
respiratory alkalosis
Pco2 decreased
caused by hyperventilation
acute or chronic alkalosis
171
female produces
1 gamete per month
-retains and nurtures zygote
172
male produces
large gametes
-half a billion sperm per day
173
testes (male gonads)
-secrete male sex hormones (androgens)
-produce male gametes (sperm)
174
pathway of sperm
testes
epididymis
ductus defernes
ejaculatory duct
urethra
175
accessory glands secrete fluids into duct system
seminal gland
prostate
bulbourethral gland
176
spermatic cord
between abdomen and testes
blood vessels, nerves, lympthatic vessels of testes
entrance to inguinal canal
177
inguinal hernia
when coughing, abdominal wall and pressure increases
178
dartos muscle
layer of smooth muscle in dermis of scrotum
179
cremaster
skelatal muscle deep to dermis
tenses scrotum and pulls testes closer to body
180
histology of testes
seminefrous tubules
-sperm production
181
leydig cells
testosterone
182
sperm move from testes by what force
cilia lining efferent ductules
183
ductus defernes
smooth muscle
peristaltic contractions
store sperm for several months
184
accessory glands
produce fluid of semen
important glands:
-seminal gland
-prostate
-bulbourethral glands
185
major functions of accessory glands
-activate sperm: nutrients to propel sperm and fluids along reproductive tract by peristaltic contractions
-produce buffers to counteract acidity of urethral and vaginal movements
186
semen contains
sperm
seminal fluid: fructose, alkaline (for sperm to survive)
187
corpus spongiosum and corposa cavernosa
tissues that fill with blood during erection
*erectile tissue
188
mitosis
somatic
produces 2 diploid daughter cells
-homologous
-46 chromosomes in adult cell: 23 from mom, 23 from dad
189
Meiosis I and II
only sex cells
190
meiosis
sperm in males
oocytes in females
produce 4 haploid gametes
-each with 23 individual chromosomes
191
crossing over (meiosis)
exchange of genetic material that increases genetic variation among offspring
192
spermatogenesis
sperm production
begins at puberty
process is 64 days
involves:
1. mitosis
2.meiosis
3.spermiogenesis
193
pathway of spermatogenesis
primary spermatogonium
two primary spermatocyte
meiosis I
secondary spermatocyte
meiosis II
4 spermatids
spermiogenesis
sperm
enter ST lumen
spermiation
194
seminiferous tubules
in testes, contain sperm
regulate the # of cells
195
spermiogenesis
last step of spermatogenesis
involve major structural changes
*gets rid of a lot of things, develop - some new things, look completely different
at spermiation, a sperm:
-loses attachment to nurse cell
-enters lumen of seminefrous tubule
196
acrosome
proteolytic enzymes (breakdown off protiens)
-once sperm reaches egg, allows sperm to burrow into egg to combine DNA
197
nurse cells (sertoli cells)
spermatogenesis
-functions:
-blood testis barrier
-support of mitosis and meiosis
-speriogenesis
-provide nutrients
-inhibitin: tells pituitary gland to stop producing sperm (negative feedback)
198
nurse cells
secrete inhibin
negative feedback control of spermatogenesis (inhibits FSH secretion)
199
two steps in capacitation
sperm become motile
capable of fertilization
200
anatomy of sperm
head
neck
middle piece
tail
201
Gonadotropin- releasing hormone
hypothalamus
controls rates of secretion
of FSH and LH
testosterone
202
FSH and testosterone
-target nurse cells of seminiferous tubules
Nurse cells
-secrete inhibin
-promote spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis
203
effects of testosterone
-stimulates spermatogenesis
-libido
-bone and muscle growth
-maintains male secondary sex characteristics
204
female reproductive system
produce sex hormones
1 gamete per month
retain and nurtures zygote
protects and supports developing embroyo
nourishes newborn infant
205
structures stabilizing the ovary
ovarian ligment
mesovarium
suspensory ligament
206
fimbrae
finger like projections from uterine tube that catch egg after ovulation
207
oocyte travels from
ovary
uterine tube
fimbrae
208
uterine tubes
also called fallopian tubes or oviduct
-transport oocyte to uterus
-ciliary movement and peristaltic contractions
209
path of oocyte
ovary
fimbrae
infindibulum
ampulla
isthmus
210
uterus
developing embroyo and fetus
-mechanical protection
-nutritional support
-waste removal
211
uterine wall
perimetrium
myometrium
endometrium
212
perimetrium
covers fundus and posterior surface of uterine body and isthmus
213
myometrium
thick, middle, muscular layer
-force to move fetus from uterus into vagina
214
endometrium
thin, inner, glandular layer
-glands and vessels support the fetus
215
2 layers of endometrium
basal layer: attach endometrium to myometrium
functional layer: cyclical changes in response to sex hormone levels
216
vagina
smooth muscle
stratified squamous
functions:
-passageway for elimination of menstrual fluids
-receives sperm during sexual intercourse
217
lactaion
controlled by hormones
218
nipple
ducts of mammary glands
219
oogenesis (ovum production)
begins before birth
-mitosis -> meiosis I)
220
fetal ovaries contain
oogonia for mitosis
diploid primary oocytes
7 million primary oocytes after 5 months of development
221
oogenesis
oogonium
primary oocyte meiosis I
secondary oocyte completes meiosis II on fertilization
zygote
embroyo
fetus
222
1 oocyte becomes
one secondary oocyte
two or three polar bodies
ovary releases secondary oocyte
223
at birth
ovaries contain primary oocytes (stuck in meiosis I)
224
by puberty
400,000 primary oocytes remain
-finish meiosis I, produce haploid secondary oocytes (n)
225
at puberty
meiosis I is complete
yields first polar body and secondary oocyte
226
at fertilization
second polar body forms and fertilized secondary oocyte is called a mature ovum
227
ovarian cycle
divided into:
-follicular phase: primordial to tertiary ovarian follicle
-luteal phase: ovulation to implantation or menstration
228
GnRH
-hypothalamus
-causes LH and FSH release from pituitary gland
229
pituitary
FSH: develops follicle
LH: causes voluation
230
follicle and corpus luteum: estrogen and progesterone
theca cells: estrogen
granulosa cells: progesterone
-build and maintain endometrium
231
placenta and embryo: estrogen and progesterone
builds and maintains endometrium
232
parts of ovary
primordial ovarian follicles
primary ovarian follicle
secondary ovarian follicle
tertiary ovarian follicle
233
uterine tube and fertilization
for fertilization to occur, secondary oocyte must meet sperm within the first 12-24 hours in uterine tube
234
surge in LH triggers
completion of meiosis I
rupture of follicular wall
ovulation
235
surge of estrogen
build up function layer from theta cells -> corpus luteum
236
follicular phase of ovarian cycle
menstrual: destructs functional zone
proliferative: repair and regenerates functional zone
237
luteal phase of ovarian cycle
secretion by uterine glands
238
functional layer
grows thick every month
-implantation: stays thick for 9 months
-menses
-no implantation: shedding, thinning
-made of vessels, glands
239
follicular phase
FSH: tertiary ovarian follicles begin to grow
LH:
-thecal endocrine cells produce androstendione
-granulosa cells -> estrogens
240
luteal phase
corpus albicans
-produced from nonfunctional corpus luteum as fibroblasts invade and form scar issues
-marks end of ovarian cycle
241
fibroblasts
collagen is laid down
242
uterine cycle (menstraul cycle)
21 to 35 days
menarche: first uterine cycle, begins at puberty
menopause: termination of uterine cycles (45-55)
243
3 phases of uterine cycle
menstraul
proliferative
secretory
244
menstrual and proliferative phases
occur during ovarian follicular phase
245
secretory phase
occurs during ovarian luteal phase
246
Menstrual phase
degeneration of the endometrial functional layer
-leads to menstruation/ menses
-constriction of spiral arteries
-weakened arterial walls rupture
-release blood into connective tissues of functional layer
247
menses
entire functional layer is lost
only functional layer is affected
248
proliferative phase
epithelial cells
-multiply and spread
-growth and vascularization (increased blood vessels)
-restore functional layer
-same time as enlargement of tertiary ovarian follicles
249
what is proliferative phase stimulated and sustained by
estrogens secreted by developing ovarian follicles
250
entire functional layer is
highly vascularized
-small arteries spiral toward inner surface
251
secretory phase
uterine glands enlarge, increased secretion
-arteries of uterine wall
-spiral through the functional layer
-begins at ovulation as long as the corpus luteum remains intact
-ends as corpus luteum stops producing hormones
-continues if placenta and embroyo release estrogen and progesterone
252
menopause
45-55
by age 50, no primodial ovarian follicles left
-in premature menopause, depletion occurs before age 40
253
decrease in levels of estrogen leads to
-reductions in size of uterus and breasts
-thinning of urethral and vaginal epithilia
-reduction in rate of bone deposition (osteopenia)
254
five functions of estrogens
-stimulate bone and muscle growth
-maintain female secondary sex characteristics
-affect CNS activity in hypothalamus
-maintain functional accesory reproductive glands
-initiate repair and growth of endometrium
255
development
-gradual modification of anatomical structures
-fertilization to maturity
256
pre-embryonic development
first 2 wks after fertilization
produces embryo
257
embroyonic development
third through eigth weeks
258
fetal development
development of fetus
begins at 9th week, continues until birth
259
gestation
time spent in prenatal development
3 trimesters
260
first trimester
beginning of each organ, ball of cells
-preembroyonic through early fetal developments
261
second trimester
development of organs
body shape and proportions change
262
third trimester
rapid fetal growth
most major organ systems are fully functional
263
prenatal development
embroyonic and fetal developmental stages
264
postnatal development
begins at birth
continues to maturity
-full dev or completed growth
265
first trimester
cleavage: after sperm and egg combine, divides
implantation: implant onto endometrial wall
placentation: digs roots into endometrial wall to take nutrients to nourish itself
embryogenesis: development of cluster of cells
266
corona radiate
protective follicle cells outside
267
zona pellucida
shell of egg
-protective
-glycoprotien envelope
268
fertilization
within 24 hours, capacitation, acrosome, ampulla (fertilization in uterine tube)
secondary oocyte + sperm -> meiosis II -> ovum
269
cleavage
2 to 16 cell stage
blastomere: cells
morula: at 16 cell stage
270
blastulation
day 7 from fertilization
blastula (32 cell stage) -> blastocyst with inner cell
trophoblast -> cytotrophoblast and synctiophroblast
embroyoblast -> bilaminar disc
implantation
embryogenesis
271
blastomeres come from
day 0: fertilization in ampulla
first cleavage division
polar bodies die off
day 1: 2 cell stage
day 2: 4 cell stage
blastomeres divide
day 3: early morula
day 4: zona pellucida -> inner cell mass
day 6: blastocoele
day 7-10: implantation in uterine wall
272
trophoblast
two layers make connection
-cytothrophoblast
-syncytiotroblast: dig roots into uterine wall of mom
-placentation
273
embroyoblast
bilaminar disc (embroyo)
-2 layers
-epiblast (amnion) and hypoblast (yolk sac)
274
embroyonic period
implantation to week 9
275
endometrial capillary
contact between egg and endometrium
276
syncytiotrophoblast
connect with mom to exchange nutrients
277
developing villi
connect with blood vessels
-nouishment from endometrium
278
primitive streak
significant developmental milestone
-cells from outside of epiblast move toward primitive streak then outward
cells from outside -> inside
result: seperation between hypoblast and endoblast
279
germ layers
outermost layer: ectoderm
mesoderm
innermost layer: endoderm
280
ectoderm
forms skin
281
early embryogenesis
gastrulation
-week 3
-bi layer to tri layer embryonic disc
282
three germ layers
ectoderm: neural grove -> neural tube
-neural crest cells
-nervous system and skin
mesoderm:
-notochord
-CT, urinary system, peritoneum and pleura
endoderm
283
ectoderm contributions to integumetry system
epidermis, nails, hair follicles, hairs
glands communicating with skin (sweat, mammary, sebaceous glands)
284
mesodermal contributions
integumentary: dermis, hypodermis
kidneys (nephrons, collecting system)
285
endodermal contributions
repiratory and digestive system
286
extra embroyonic membranes
everything other than bilateral disc
-support embroyonic and fetal development
287
yolk sac
primary nutrient source for early embryonic development
288
amnion
continues to enlarge through development
-amniotic fluid is produced: surrounds and cushions developing embryo or fetus
289
allantois
base later gives rise to urinary bladder
290
chorion
layer of connection of fetus -> mom
291
4-5 layers in skin
top surfaces are dead
alive cells will merge with tissue next to it
292
notochord
part of CNS
in primitive streak
293
neural plate
to neural tube to CNS
294
umbilical cord
connects fetus to placenta
contains: allantois, placental blood vessels, yolk stalk
295
placental circulation
blood flow from the the fetus to placenta through paired umbilical arteries
-blood returns to fetus in single umbilical vein
296
second trimester
fetus grows faster than surrounding placenta
297
third trimester
most organ systems become able to function without maternal assistance
-growth rate slows but much weight is gained
-immature lungs, immune system
298
Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
signals implantation occured
-progesterine stimulated to help with functional layer
299
HCG
appears in maternal bloodstream after implantation
reliable indication of pregnancy
300
neonatal period, infancy, childhood major events
-organ systems become fully operational
-individual grow rapidly and body proportions change significantly
-coordinated movt of various cells to become bigger
301
neonatal period
transition from fetus to neonate (newborn)
-respiratory
-circulatory
-digestive
-urinary
-contained in milk
302
puberty
sexual maturation that marks the beginning of adolescence
-hypothalamus increases GnRH
-FSH and LH rise rapidly
-sex specific differences in many systems
303
