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Anatomy II > Anatomy Exam II > Flashcards

Anatomy Exam II Flashcards

1
Q

Innate Immunity

A

-nonspecific; blind
-protects against every type of invading agent
-anything that randomly targets pathogens

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2
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

-specific; the “eyes”
-depends on activity of lymphocytes
-develops after exposure to environmental hazards

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3
Q

Lymphocytes

A

B cells, T cells, NK cells
“extravasation”: can move at any time

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4
Q

Lymphocyte production

A

Bone marrow
Thymus
Peripheral lymphoid tissues

*Hemocytoblasts in bone marrow: divide into 2 types of lymphoid stem cells

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5
Q

Immune surveillance

A

NK cells attack: foreign cells, body cells infected by viruses + cancer cells
LYSE the plasma membrane (poke tiny holes)

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6
Q

Antibody-mediated Immunity

A

“humoral immunity”
B cells: differentiate into plasma cells, secreting antibodies + attaching to pathogens leading to the destruction of pathogen

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7
Q

Cell-mediated Immunity

A

T cells: “cytotoxic T cells” attack and destroy foreign cells or body cells infected by viruses

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8
Q

T and B cells

A

migrate throughout body to defend peripheral tissues

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9
Q

Innate defenses

A

physical barriers ie. skin
phagocytes
immune surveillance: NK cells go cell to cell to check if its infected or cancerous
interferons: chemical messengers (anti-viral: if cell is infected, cell produces antiviral protiens)
complement: poke holes and lyse pathogen
inflammation
fever

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10
Q

inflammation

A

mast cell: releases cytokines, histamines
1. increases blood flow
2. activates mast cells
3. increases capillary permeability
4.activates complement
5.stimulates regional clotting
6.increases regional temperature
7.activates adaptive defenses

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11
Q

Immune surveillience

A

NK cells
-identify and adhere to abnormal cells
-perforins form pores in abnormal cells plasma membranes, causing lysis

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12
Q

Tumor specific antigens

A

wants NK to kill cell developing into cancer cells
-on plasma membranes of cancer cells
-detected as abnormal by NK cells
-some cancer cells avoid detection (immunological escape)

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13
Q

Interferons (IFNs)

A

innate, type of cytokine
-trigger production of antiviral proteins
-small proteins released by activated lymphocytes and macrophages
-antiviral proteins don’t kill viruses but block viral replication in the cell

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14
Q

Cytokines

A

chemical messengers released by tissue cells; important to immune response

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15
Q

Complement system

A

more than 30 complement protiens in plasma
*assist antibodies in destruction of pathogens

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16
Q

MAC: Killing of a pathogen (Cell lysis)

A

complement protiens form membrane attack complex (MAC) in membrane that destroys target cell
*Pokes holes on bacteria -> dies

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17
Q

Enhanced phagocytosis (Opsonization)

A

macrophage membranes contain receptors that detect and bind to complement protiens and bound antibodies
*if complement binds pathogen, makes it easier to be phagocytozed

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18
Q

Inflammation (histamine release)

A

releases histamine by mast cells and basophils increase inflammation, attracting phagocytes and blood flow to the region

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19
Q

Cardinal signs of inflammation

A

redness
swelling
heat
pain

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20
Q

Necrosis

A

local tissue destruction in area of injury
*battlefront between immune cells and pathogens

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21
Q

Pus

A

immune cell liquify
debris, fluid, dead/dying cells and necrotic tissue

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22
Q

Abscess

A

accumulation of pus in enclosed space
-well sealed, walled off, cant get high enough conc of antibiotics to take care of it
-can be drained from skin via needles

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23
Q

Pathway of Tissue Damage

A

1) tissue damage (chemical change in interstitial fluid)
2) mast cell activation (release of histamine and heparin)
3) redness, swelling, heat, pain: histamine causes dilation of vessels or clot formation
OR
3) phagocyte attraction (attracts neutrophils)
4) release of cytokines
5) removes debris via neutrophils and macrophages
OR
5) specific defenses

FINAL STEP: TISSUE REPAIR

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24
Q

opsonization

A

tags site of destruction with antibodies so that a phagocyte will destroy it

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25
Q

cytotoxic T cells

A

kills bacteria
attacks antigens physically and chemically

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26
Q

helper T cells

A

stimulate responses of T and B cells
*removes the safety switch for B and cytotoxic T cells

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27
Q

Regulatory T cells

A

moderate immune response
ensure suppression, no wilding out

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28
Q

memory T cells

A

respond to antigens previously encountered

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29
Q

Cell- mediated immunity

A

cytotoxic T tells
-defends against abnormal cells and pathogens inside cell

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30
Q

Antibody-mediated immunity

A

B cells
-defend against antigens and pathogens in body fluid

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31
Q

Cell-mediated immunity route

A

phagocytes and T cells activated -> activated T cells attack pathogens via phagocytosis or the release of chemical toxins -> destruction of antigens

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32
Q

Antibody- mediated immunity route

A

activated B cells give rise to cells that produce antibodies -> attack by circulating antibodies -> destruction of antigens

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33
Q

Clonal selection

A

antigen “selecting” lymphocytes for cloning and now has to multiply

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34
Q

Innate immunity

A

present at birth

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35
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

acquired after birth

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36
Q

Active immunity

A

develops after exposure to antigen

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37
Q

Passive immunity

A

produced by transferring antibodies from another source

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38
Q

adaptive immunity

A

not present at birth
acquire immunity when you’ve been exposed -> active immunity develops in response to antigen exposure -> naturally acquired active immunity OR artificially acquired active immunity

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39
Q

naturally acquired active immunity

A

develops after exposure to antigens in the environment

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40
Q

artificially acquired active immunity

A

develops after administration of an antigen to prevent disease
ex. vaccination

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41
Q

passive immunity (adaptive)

A

transfer of antibodies from another source

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42
Q

active immunity

A

develops in response to antigen exposure - creates its own antibodies
bacterial infections
B cells

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43
Q

naturally acquired passive immunity

A

transfer of maternal antibodies across placenta or in breast milk

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44
Q

artificially acquired passive immunity

A

administration of antibodies to combat infection

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45
Q

innate (nonspecific) immunity

A

genetically determined or no prior exposure

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46
Q

memory (immunity)

A

some inactive lymphocytes (memory cells)
-stay in circulation
-provide immunity against new exposure

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47
Q

tolerance

A

immune system ignores normal antigens
ability of immune system to kill you

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48
Q

everytime a T cell divides

A

one fights
other becomes a memory T cell

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49
Q

MHC cells

A

cell gets infected by bacteria
bacteria sheds proteins
cell has to flag down B or T cell
takes a piece of bacteria and sticks it onto MHC
MHC sticks it on a surface and reaches plasma membrane within transport vesicles

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50
Q

red

A

piece of an antigen

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51
Q

CD8 markers

A

cytotoxic T cells and regulatory T cells
1 MHC protiens

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52
Q

CD8 markers

A

helper T cells
II MHC protiens

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53
Q

CD8 and CD4

A

bind to CD3 complex (on all T cells)
prepare cell for activation

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54
Q

CD8 T cells

A

needs MHC protein with an antigen to get activated
-only T cells that are going to destroy that bacteria are going to be activated by the MHC protein with the antigen in it
-one produces cytotoxic T cells and memory T cells, other produces regulatory T cells

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55
Q

CD8 T cells encounter

A

appropriate antigen bound to class I MHC protien

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56
Q

Antigen recognition and costimulation

A

T cell activation and cell division producing active cytotoxic T cells and memory Tc cells

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57
Q

Costimulation

A

T cell must be stimulated by the abnormal target cell

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58
Q

Active Tc cell destroys

A

antigen-bearing cell

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59
Q

perforin release

A

destruction of plasma membranes by creating perforations in plasma membrane / release cytokines to start apoptosis

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60
Q

Cytokine release

A

stimulation of apoptosis

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61
Q

Lymphotoxin release

A

disruption of cell metabolism

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62
Q

Memory Cytotoxic T cells

A

-produced with cytotoxic T cells
-stay in circulation
-form cytotoxic T cells if same antigen appears again

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63
Q

Helper T cells secrete

A

cytokines that stimulate B and T cells
-cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity

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64
Q

activated B cells divide into

A

plasma cells to synthesize and secrete antibodies into the fluid

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65
Q

B cell divides into memory B cells

A

like memory T cells, remain in reserve to respond to next infection

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66
Q

Immunoglobins

A

constant segments of heavy chains that determine classes of antibodies
-IgG
-IgE
-IgD
-IgM
-IgA

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67
Q

IgG

A

resistance against everything
crosses placenta
maternal IgG provides passive immunity to the fetus

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68
Q

IgE

A

basophils, mast cells
if antigen bounds -> cell releases histamine -> accelerated inflammation
allergic response

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69
Q

IgD

A

on surfaces of B cells where it binds antigens to activate in extracellular fluid

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70
Q

IgM

A

similar to IgG (both secreted by plasma cells, released in blood, binds to targets) but not as potent, but gives immediate response
-released before IgG

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71
Q

IgA

A

secretions: mucus, tears, saliva, semen

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72
Q

Actions of antibodies

A

-neutralization of antigen-binding site
-precipitation/ agglutination - formation of immune complexes
-activation of complement system
-attractions of phagocytes
-stimulation of inflammation
-prevention of bacterial and viral adhesion

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73
Q

first exposure

A

produces primary response

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74
Q

next exposure

A

triggers secondary response
more extensive and prolonged

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75
Q

primary response of B cells

A

takes time to develop
antigens activate B cells -> run it to geminal center, antibodies increase
plasma cells differentiate
antibody titer- level of antibodies in plasma slowly rises

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76
Q

primary response

A

IgM and IgG antibodies do not remain elevated

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77
Q

secondary response

A

very rapid increase in IgG, levels rise much higher than primary response
-antibody levels remain elevated for an extended period after the second exposure to the antigen

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78
Q

Immunocompetence

A

produce immune response after exposure to antigen

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79
Q

Respiratory system gases

A

oxygen (ATP synthesis)
carbon dioxide (product of cellular respiration metabolism; gets rid of hydrogen, acids)

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80
Q

blood carries oxygen

A

O2 from lungs -> peripheral tissues
CO2 from peripheral tissues -> lungs

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81
Q

functions of respiratory system

A

gas exhange
protects respiratory surfaces: dehydration, temperature changes, pathogens
produce sounds
detect odors

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82
Q

larynx

A

establishes boundary between upper and lower respiratory systems

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83
Q

conducting portion

A

conducts air but no exchanging it
-nasal cavity -> larger bronchioles

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84
Q

respiratory portion

A

smallest respiratory bronchioles and alveoli (gas exhange)
*part of air exchanged with blood

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85
Q

Ciliated columnar epithilieum

A

movement of mucus to pharynx
ciliary movement propels mucus across epithelial surface

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86
Q

functions of mucos

A

respiratory defense system - removes particles and pathogens from inhaled air

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87
Q

Alveolar epithileum

A

lines exchange surfaces of alveoli
delicate, simple squamous epithelium
1 layer so it can exchange oxygen

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88
Q

Respiratory defense system

A

-filtration in nasal cavity removes large particles
-mucous cells and mucous glands
-cilia
-alveolar macrophages: phagocytic immune cells + destroy cells innate

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89
Q

function of nasal hairs

A

trap large particles in air

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90
Q

meatuse

A

narrow passageways that produce air turbelence to:
1) trap particles in mucous
2) warm and humidify incoming air
3)bring olfactory stimuli to olfactory receptors

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91
Q

Epiglottis

A

flap that covers glottis when swallowing
prevents food and liquids from entering respiratory tract when swallowing

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92
Q

Phonation

A

sound production at larynx
just any sound that you make

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93
Q

Articulation

A

sound modification with lips, tongue and teeth
*words

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94
Q

Capillaries wrapped around alveoli results in

A

-interaction between blood and air
-results in gas exchange

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95
Q

bronchodilation

A

-sympathetic activation
-more air goes in
-enlarges diameter of airway
-reduces resistance to airflow

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96
Q

bronchioconstriction

A

parasympathetic activation
histamine release
reduces luminal diameter of airway

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97
Q

Pneumocytes

A

Type 1: thin/ delicate alveolar cells that line the alveolar surface
Type 2: alveolar cells that secrete surfactant proteins to reduce surface tension

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98
Q

Surfactant

A

protien liquid that coats alveoli and allows it to expand so that lungs do not collapse
*reduces surface tension

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99
Q

Gas exchange occurs across Blood air barrier (alveoli -> blood)

A

3 layers:
alveolar cell
capillary endothelial
fused basement membrane btw them
*after going across 3 layers, it reaches blood

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100
Q

gas exhange

A

quick and efficient since the distance for diffusion is short and O2 and CO2 are small and lipid-soluble

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101
Q

Lobes of lungs

A

right: 3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior)
left: 2 lobes (superior, inferior)

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102
Q

Pulmonary embolism

A

blockage in pulmonary artery that stops blood flow to the alveoli

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103
Q

Parietal Pleura

A

lines inner surface of thoracic wall

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104
Q

Visceral pleura

A

covers outer surfaces of lungs

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105
Q

pleural fluid

A

lubricates space between the 2 layers

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106
Q

external respiration

A

macrolevel: exchanging gases w external environment
Oxygen comes in, CO2 goes out

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107
Q

internal respiration

A

cellular level
O2 goes into cells, CO2 goes out of cell
result of cellular respiration

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108
Q

integrated steps in external respiration

A

pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
gas diffusion
transport of O2 and CO2

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109
Q

hypoxia

A

low tissue oxygen levels

110
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

-breathing
-physical movement of air into and out of the respiratory tract

111
Q

Boyles Law

A

change in lung volume changes air pressure
-if pressure decreases, air goes from high -> low

112
Q

when breathing, external intercostals

A

pull rubs closer together and upwards, pulls lungs outward and expands volume

113
Q

when phrenic nerve contracts

A

ribs flatten out
pulls lungs downward and expands

114
Q

primary respiratory muscles

A

Diaphragm: upward movement decreased lung volume
External intercostals

115
Q

Pulmonary ventilation depends on

A

volume
pressure
thoracic cavity
diaphragm or rib cage

116
Q

Pneumothorax

A

air enters pleural cavity
due to injury to chest wall/ rupture of alveoli
results in: atelectasis (collapsed lung)

117
Q

Resistance

A

force of breathing
bronchodilation: less resistance
bronchoconstriction: more resistance

118
Q

Compliance

A

measure of expandability
-factors influencing it:
connective tissue of lungs
level of surfactant production
mobility of thoracic cage

119
Q

anatomic dead space (VD)

A

blood not being exchanged with the blood
-volume of air that remains in conducting passages

120
Q

respiratory rate

A

number of breaths per minute
-works on the cardiovascular system

121
Q

tidal volume

A

amount of air moved per breath

122
Q

Cardiac output equals

A

heart rate x stroke volume

123
Q

respiratory minute volume (Ve)

A

amount of air moved per minute
calculated as: respiratory rate x tidal volume
measures pulmonary ventilation

124
Q

Pulmonary function tests

A

measure rates and volumes of air movements

125
Q

Spirometer

A

measures rate and volume of air movement

126
Q

residual volume

A

if you exhale, still have some air in the lungs

127
Q

gas and diffusion occur

A

due to differences in concentration gradient

128
Q

efficiency of gas exchange

A

-substantial differences in partial pressure across blood air barrier
-gas exchange distances are short
-oxygen and carbon dioxide are lipid soluble
-total surface area is large
-blood flow and airflow are coordinated
CO2 is higher in blood coming to the alveoli

129
Q

why do lungs go all the way in?

A

to maximize oxygen going in and carbon dioxide coming out

130
Q

VQ match/mismatch

A

V= air into lungs
Q= blood flow

131
Q

external respiration alveoli conc.

A

alveoli conc. must be higher for gas after blood arrives

132
Q

Right blood cells (RBCs)

A

transport oxygen to and CO2 from peripheral tissues
removes o2 and co2 from plasma, allowing gases to continue to diffuse into blood

133
Q

oxygen binds to

A

iron in hemoglobin molecules
each Hb molecule binds 4 oxygen molecules

134
Q

Hemoglobin saturation

A

percentage of heme units containing bound oxygen at any given moment

135
Q

Factors affecting Hb saturation

A

Po2 of blood
Blood pH (low pH gets rid of O2 from hemoglobin)
temperature (high temp drives O2 off)
metabolic activity within RBCs

136
Q

oxygen conc during exercise

A

low; muscle doing work during exercise has low oxygen bc muscles suck it up

137
Q

Oxygen- hemoglobin saturation curve

A

higher Po2 = greater Hb saturation

138
Q

why is the oxygen-hemoglobin curve curved?

A

Hb changes shape everytime a molecule of oxygen binds
-allosteric change
each oxygen bound makes next oxygen bind more easily

139
Q

Hb curve shirts right

A

-when pH drops
-temp rises
-more oxygen is released
-exercise

140
Q

Hb curve shifts left

A

when pH rises
temp drops
less oxygen released

141
Q

Biphosphoglycerate (BPG)

A

causes more oxygen to release

142
Q

fetal Hb

A

binds to more oxygen which allows fetus to take o2 from maternal blood
-holds onto o2 tighter since it cant readily get o2 from outside environment
-left shift!

143
Q

carbon monoxide

A

binds strongly to Hb
takes place of/competes against oxygen

144
Q

carbon dioxide in bloodstream is carried 3 ways:

A

converted to carbonic acid bicarbonate
bound to Hb within RBCs
dissolved in plasma

145
Q

70% of carbon dioxide is transported as

A

bicarbonate

146
Q

V/Q ratio

A

ventilation to perfusion ratio
v= how much air reaches alveoli
q= how much blood gets into the lungs
lung perfusion (blood flow to alveoli)
alveolar ventilation (airflow)

147
Q

V/Q ratio increases during

A

exercise

148
Q

V/Q ratio for good exchange

A

1:1

149
Q

V/Q ratio less than 1

A

blood flow problem; increased respiratory rate

150
Q

high carbon dioxide leads to

A

vasodilation and bronchiodilation to get rid of it

151
Q

hypercapnia

A

increase in arterial CO2
caused by hypoventilation: decreased rate of breathing
chemoreceptors increase respiration rate and depth

152
Q

homeostasis pathway for increased CO2

A

increased co2 detected -> chemoreceptors in arteries and medulla oblongata -> respiratory muscles stimulated -> increased respiratory rate with increased elimination of co2 at alveoli

153
Q

hypocapnia

A

low pCO2
caused by hyperventilation
chemoreceptor decreases and respiratory rate falls

154
Q

baroreceptor reflexes

A

carotid and aortic arch stimulation affects BP and respiratory centers

155
Q

when BP falls

A

respiratory rate increases due to carbon dioxide building up in blood

156
Q

when blood pressure increases

A

respiratory rate decreases

157
Q

blood going towards alveoli is

A

low in O2
higher in CO2

158
Q

since the alveoli is high in O2 and low in CO2

A

as the blood passes by, the gases are exchanged so that the blood past the alveoli is now high in O2 and low in CO2

159
Q

oral cavity (major organ of digestive tract)

A

ingestion
mechanical digestion
moistening, mixing with salivary secretions

160
Q

pharynx and esophagus (major organ of digestive tract)

A

propulsion towards the stomach

161
Q

stomach (major organ of digestive tract)

A

storage
digestion
chyme formation (food= liquified)

162
Q

small intestine (major organ of digestive tract)

A

enzymatic digestion and absorption of water, organic substances, vitamins, ions

163
Q

large intestine

A

dehydration and compaction of indigestible materials in preparation for elimination

163
Q

teeth

A

mechanical digestion by chewing/ mastication

164
Q

tongue

A

assists mechanical digestion with teeth, sensory analysis

165
Q

salivary glands

A

secretion of lubricating fluid containing enzymes that break down carbs

166
Q

liver

A

metabolism and detoxification
bile

167
Q

gallbladder

A

bile storage and secretion

168
Q

pancreas

A

enzymatic secretion for digestion

169
Q

digestive processes

A

ingestion - eating
mechanical digestion - chewing
chemical digestion - breaking bonds
secretion - something added to food to break it down
absorption - small intestine
defecation - water and nutrients are taken out of it, now in colon

170
Q

functions of oral cavity

A

-sensory analysis: of food before swallowing
-mechanical digestion: through teeth, tongue
-lubrication: by mixing with saliva and mucus
-limited chemical digestion: of carbs and lipids via amylase

171
Q

Amylase is secreted by

A

salivary glands, pancreas

172
Q

salivary glands

A

parotid, sublingual and submandibular glands
*produce saliva, amylase, mucus

173
Q

salivary glands produce

A

serous secretion containing AMYLASE to break down starches

174
Q

salivary glands produce mucus

A

acts as a buffer and lubricant

175
Q

functions of saliva

A

cleaning oral surfaces
moistening and lubricating food
keeping pH 7
controlling bacteria and acid pops.
dissolving chemicals stimulating taste buds
digestion of complex carbs with salivary amylase

176
Q

parasympathetic stimulation accelerates

A

secretion by salivary glands

177
Q

mastication (chewing)

A

food is forced from oral cavity -> vestibule and back across occlusal surfaces of teeth

178
Q

muscles of mastication

A

close jaws
slide lower jaw side to side

179
Q

tongue compacts chewed food into

A

bolus
-moist, rounded ball
-easy to swallow

180
Q

chyme

A

partially digested food mixed with acidic secretions of stomach
-bolus mixes with gastric acid to form it

181
Q

gastric glands

A

gastric pit communicates with gastric glands
-parietal cells: B12, intrinsic factor, HCL
-chief cells: pepsinogen -> pepsin (active proteolytic enzyme)

182
Q

deficiency associated with parietal cells results in

A

anemia

183
Q

Liver lobules

A

-portal triad containing interlobular vein, artery, bile duct

184
Q

gallbladder parts

A

fundus
body
neck

185
Q

Duodenum

A

pancreatic enzymes and bile is released

186
Q

anatomy of liver

A

hepatocytes
-liver cells
-circulates levels of nutrients through selective absorption and secretion

187
Q

functions of liver

A

metabolic regulation
hematological regulation
bile production
stores B12

188
Q

regulatory activities of liver

A

carb, lipid, AA metabolism
waste removal
vitamin and mineral storage
drug inactivation

189
Q

gallbladder

A

Stores and produces bile
Emulsification in duodenum

190
Q

gallbladder releases bile into

A

duodenum only when stimulated by cholecystokinin (CCK)

191
Q

when chyme enters duodenum

A

CCK is released
-hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxes/ opens up
-gallbladder contracts

192
Q

segments of small intestine

A

duodenum
jejunum
ileum

193
Q

primary muscle in small intestine

A

smooth muscle

194
Q

duodeum function

A

mixing bowl; recieves chyme from stomach and digestive secretions from pancreas and liver

195
Q

mucous protects epithileum from

A

acidity of chyme

196
Q

major hormones of duodenum

A

gastrin
secretin
GIP
CCK
VIP
enterocrin

197
Q

jejunum

A

most chemical digestion and nutrient absorption

198
Q

ileum

A

ends at ileocecal valve
-sphincter controls flow from ileum into cecum of large intestine

199
Q

gastrin

A

-acid production by parietal cells
-stimulates gastric motility

200
Q

GIP

A

release of insulin from pancreas

201
Q

secretin and CCK

A

releases pancreatic enzymes and buffer
bile secretion and ejection of bile from gallbladder

202
Q

VIP

A

dilation of intestinal capillaries

203
Q

Enterocrinin

A

-released when chyme enters duodenum
-stimulates alkaline mucus production by submucosal glands

204
Q

parts of large intestine

A

cecum: pouchlike first portion
colon: largest portion
rectum: end of digestive tract

205
Q

functions of large intestine

A

absorption or reabsorption of:
-water
-nutrients left over
-bile salts
-organic wastes
-vitamins and toxins produced by bacteria
-intestinal contents into feces
-storage of fecal material prior to defecation

206
Q

microbiome

A

bacteria, fungi, viruses in human body including those that inhabit large intestine

207
Q

Vitamin K

A

fat soluble
-liver synthesizes clotting factors including prothrombin

208
Q

Biotin

A

water soluble
glucose metabolism

209
Q

Vitamin B5 (pantotheic acid)

A

water soluble
manufacture steroid hormones

210
Q

organic wastes

A

bacteria convert bilirubin -> urobilogens and stercobilogens

211
Q

order of parts of the large intestine

A

rectum
anal canal
anal column
internal anal sphinter
external anal sphinter
anus

212
Q

esophagus histology

A

nonkeratonixed
stratified squamous epithelium

213
Q

stomach histology

A

simple columnar epithelium
-good for absorption, secretions

214
Q

peristalsis

A

wave-like movement of muscular contractions to move food

215
Q

segmentation

A

mechanical contactions that churn and fragment bolus; grinding food
-mixing contents with intestinal secretions

216
Q

Factors that move food along digestive tract

A

local factors: pH, volume, chemical composition; release chemicals
neural mechanisms: visceral motor neurons (smooth muscles), short and long reflexes
hormonal mechanisms: enteroendocrine cells produce peptide hormones

217
Q

GERD

A

chronic acid reflux from stomach into esophagus
symptoms: heartburn, regurgitation, difficulty swallowing

218
Q

peptic ulcer disease

A

lining of the stomach, esophagus or small intestine caused by Helicobacter pylori or prolonged use of NSAIDs

219
Q

celiac disease

A

autoimmune disorder triggered by ingestion of gluten, leading to damage in the small intestine
symptoms: diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, fatigue

220
Q

Purpose of ATP

A

constructs new organic molecules

221
Q

metabolism

A

sum of all chemical and physical changes in body tissues

222
Q

catabolism

A

large -> small molecules
-breakdown released energy used to synthesize ATP

223
Q

anabolism

A

small -> large molecules
synthesis of new organic compounds that form new chemical bonds

224
Q

functions of anabolism

A

perform structural maintenance/ repairs
support growth
produce secretions
store nutrient reserves

225
Q

nutrient pool

A

all available nutrient molecules distributed in blood

226
Q

Electron transport chain (ETC)

A

mitochondria
-electrons are ultimately transferred to oxygen

227
Q

triglycerides

A

3 fatty acid, 1 glycerol
abundant storage lipids
fatty acids

228
Q

glycogen

A

abundant storage carbs
branched chain of glucose
skeletal muscle and liver

229
Q

protiens

A

abundant organic components
vital cellular functions

230
Q

Carbs, Protiens, Fats

A

krebs cycle -> ETC to get energy

231
Q

cellular respiration

A

glucose
glycolysis
pyruvate
acetyl COA
krebs
ETC

*glucose -> ETC

232
Q

aerobic metabolism

A

acetyl COA -> Krebs -> ETC

233
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

95% of ATP
mitochondria
ETC -> ATP
oxygen

234
Q

Protien synthesis

A

Amino acids form protiens

235
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

glycogen broken down to glucose

236
Q

gluconogenesis

A

synthesis of glucose from noncarbs
-glucose is stored as glycogen in liver and skelatal muscle

237
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

breakdown of glycogen -> glucose

238
Q

Glycogenesis

A

formation of glycogen from excess glucose

239
Q

Lipogenesis

A

fats created from excess glucose

240
Q

Lipolysis

A

lipids break down

241
Q

Lipogenesis

A

synthesis of fatty acids/ lipids

242
Q

Beta-oxidation

A

breaks fatty acids into 2 carbons

243
Q

cholestrol

A

bile, steroids, vitamin D, cell membrane
synthesized in liver
transported in blood as lipoprotiens

244
Q

Lipoprotiens

A

lipid-protien complexes
contain large insoluble glycerides and cholestorol
four groups of lipoprotiens

245
Q

4 groups of Lipoprotiens

A

chylomicrons
VLDLs
LDLs
HDLs

246
Q

chlyomicrons

A

smallest lipoproteins

247
Q

Very- low density lipoprotiens (VLDLs)

A

cholestrol and triglycerides
made in liver and sent to tissues for energy and cell membrane

248
Q

Low density lipoprotiens (LDLs)

A

bad cholestorol
cholesterol from liver -> other tissues
high conc of cholestorol -> plaque formation

249
Q

high density lipoprotiens (HDLs)

A

good cholesterol
excess cholesterol from tissues back to liver to make bile

250
Q

Macronutrients

A

carbs
fats
protiens
dna/ rna

251
Q

Micronutrients

A

vitamins
minerals
water

252
Q

simple carbohydrates

A

fructose and glucose (fruits, vegetables)
lactose (milk)
sucrose (refined + purified to produce table sugar)

253
Q

glucose

A

primary source of energy of all body cells
-excess stored as glycogen
-liver (purification/ regulation point) and skeletal muscle

254
Q

glycemic index

A

how fast does blood glucose level raise
-number from 0-100 represents relative rise in blood glucose level 2 hours after consuming that food

255
Q

high GI

A

for a hypoglycemic pt, give something with high GI to raise BGL

256
Q

low GI

A

for a hyperglycemic pt, give something with low Gi

257
Q

starch

A

-broken to glucose first
-slower to process
-provide energy for a longer period of time
-example: bread, cereal, pasta, potatoes

258
Q

soluble fibers

A

oat bran, beans, apples, carrots, vegetables

259
Q

insoluble fiber

A

-absorbs water and helps provide needed bulk to diet
-whole grains, skins and seeds of fruits and vegetables

260
Q

lipids

A

1g Fat provides more energy than 1g Carb

261
Q

Saturated fats

A

-solid @ room temp
-tropical oils, butter, animal fats
-heart disease, obesity, cancer

262
Q

Unsaturated fats

A

-liquid at room temp
-monounsaturated: lack one pair of hydrogen atoms ex. olive + peanut oils
-polyunsaturated: lack 2 or more pairs of hydrogen atoms

263
Q

Cholestrol

A

-cell membranes, nerve tissues
-not an essential nutrient bc liver produces it
-risk of heart and artery diseases
-LDL: deposit in artery walls
-HDL: cells to liver (recycling) and intestines (excretion)

264
Q

Primary function of Protiens

A

build/ repair tissues
9 essential from diet
11 nonessential body produces

265
Q

Vitamins

A

needed in small amounts
body cannot make most vitamins

266
Q

Fat-soluble vitamins

A

dissolve fats and can be stored in body

267
Q

Vitamin A

A

source: liver
signs of deficiency: night blindness, respiratory infections

268
Q

Vitamin D

A

source: sun’s UV rays
function: absorption of phosphorus and calcium
signs of deficiency: rickets (poor bone development), malformation of teeth

269
Q

Vitamin E

A

signs of deficiency: anemia

270
Q

Vitamin K

A

source: green leafy veggies
function: normal clotting of blood
signs of deficiency: slow clotting of blood

271
Q

Water soluble vitamins

A

-dissolve in water
-fruits and veggies
-Thiamin (B1)
-Riboflavin (B2)
-Niacin
-B6
-Folacin
-B12
-Pantotheic acid
-Biotin
-C (ascorbic acid)

Anatomy II (2 decks)

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