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Neuroscience > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

A

O2, CO2 levels, H+ ions, blood glucose, electrolyte concentrations. In carotid and aortic bodies, responds to stomach, taste buds, and olfactory bulbs

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2
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Pressure and stretch

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3
Q

Nociceptors

A

Stretch, ischemia

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4
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Skin and blood temperatures

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5
Q

Central chemoreceptors

A

Medulla
-Respond to H+, CO2

Hypothalamus
-Respond to BG levels, electrolyte concentrations

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6
Q

Peripheral cutaneous thermoreceptors

A

respond to changes in external temperature

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7
Q

Central thermoreceptors

A

in hypothalamus, respond to small changes in blood temperature

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8
Q

Somatic motor efferent system

A

Under voluntary control, Cannot be exerted by hormones, Act on musculoskeletal structures, Directly under control of brain, Consist of 1 neuron in peripheral pathway

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9
Q

Autonomic efferent system

A

Automatic, nonconscious, Can be exerted by hormones, Act on musculature of internal organs, Under control of lower centers, or local nervous system, eg, enteric system of GI tract, Usually consist of 2 neurons that synapse outside CNS

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10
Q

Sympathetic efferents to UE, thoracic viscera, trunk functions

A

Regulate tone in arteries of UE/trunk, increase HR/contractility, dilate bronchi, nerves travel along peripheral nerves

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11
Q

Sympathetic control in the head

A

Regulate tone in blood vessels tone and sweating - same as rest of body

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12
Q

Sympathetic efferents to abdominal and pelvic organs

A

Regulate tone in arteries of LE/trunk, contract GI sphincters, decrease peristalsis, decrease GI blood flow, decrease GI secretions, inhibits bladder/bowel movements, elicit ejaculation

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13
Q

Atropine

A

blocks parasympathetic activity by blocking acetylcholine release

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14
Q

Beta 1 adrenergic receptors in heart

A

increase in heart rate and contractility

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15
Q

Beta 2 adrenergic receptors in bronchial tree

A

dilation of bronchioles

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16
Q

β1 blocker (Metoprolol)

A

decreases HR and BP w/o affecting airways

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17
Q

β2 agonist (Albuterol)

A

keep airways dilated in COPD, asthma, but has side effects as B2 is also present in heart

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18
Q

α adrenergic blockers (Cardura, Minipress)

A

reduce high BP by blocking alpha receptors, cause vasodilation

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19
Q

Fibers in CN VII and IX innervate…

A

salivary glands

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20
Q

Fibers in CN VII innervate…

A

lacrimal glands

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21
Q

Fibers in CN X innervate…

A

almost all thoracic and GI organs

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22
Q

CN X activity…

A

slows HR/contractility, causes bronchoconstriction, increases peristalsis, increases GI secretions

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23
Q

Sacral parasympathetic efferents…

A

empty bladder/bowel, cause penile erection, vaginal lubrication

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24
Q

CRPS (complex regional pain syndrome)

A

Pain in arm –thought to be due to sympathetic overactivity

Treatment by stellate ganglion block, decrease sympathetic stimulation of the sensitized autonomic nociceptors in skin

But side effect is Horner’s syndrome

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25
Q

Clinical correlations of phrenic nerve

A

Irritation – Hiccups
Referred pain – clavicle area, shoulder
Paralysis - thoracic surgery, chest tubes or SCI

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26
Q

CN I

A

Olfactory Nerve,

sense of smell

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27
Q

CN II

A

Optic nerve,

Ability to see

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28
Q

Accommodation reflex (Near Triad)

A

To keep viewing an object that is coming closer to eyes, or to move from viewing a far object to a near object

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29
Q

Right CN 3 palsy

A

R eye abducted due to medial rectus weakness, eyelids drooped, pupil dilated

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30
Q

Right CN 4 palsy

A

R eye pulled inward and upward due to SO weakness

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31
Q

Lateral Rectus

A

Abducts eyeball

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32
Q

Inferior rectus

A

depresses, adducts, and laterally rotates eyeball

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33
Q

Inferior oblique

A

abducts, elevates, and laterally rotates eyeball

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34
Q

Medial rectus

A

Adducts eyeball

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35
Q

Levator palpebrae superioris

A

raises upper eyelid

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36
Q

Superior rectus

A

elevates, adducts, and medially rotates eyeball

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37
Q

superior oblique

A

abducts, depresses, and medially rotates eyeball

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38
Q

Right CN 6 palsy

A

R eye does not abduct due to LR weakness

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39
Q

Right internuclear ophthamoplegia

A

Due R MLF lesion, R eye does not adduct on voluntary gaze towards L

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40
Q

Tropia

A

deviation of one eye from forward gaze when both eyes are open, deviation always present, large deviations can be detected with plain eye exam (primary gaze or H test), small deviations can be tested with cover-uncover test

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41
Q

Phoria

A

more subtle deviation, not always present, double-vision comes when fatigued and when binocular vision is broken due to fatigue, can be ‘exposed’ when both eyes are not allowed to synchronously look at one object, can be tested with crosscover/alternating cover test

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42
Q

Optokinetic nystagmus

A

Normal, purpose is to adjust eye position to keep image stable on retina during slow sustained head movements, structures involved are pretectal area, vestibular nuclei, oculomotor nuclei

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43
Q

Saccades

A

Purpose - Fast eye movements to switch gaze from one object to another

Can be elicited by visual, tactile, auditory, nociceptive stimuli

2 types – reflexive saccades, voluntary saccades

44
Q

Structures involved with reflexive saccades

A

superior colliculus -> cranial nerve nuclei

45
Q

Structures involved with voluntary saccades

A

visual cortex -> info from perception and action streams, info from frontal eye fields, info from basal ganglia ocular loop pathways -> superior colliculus -> reticular formation -> cranial nerve nuclei

46
Q

Smooth pursuit

A

Purpose is to follow a moving object, mostly voluntary. Elicited by visual information of moving object in visual cortex.

Structures involved – perception and action centers, cerebellum, vestibular nuclei, reticular formation

47
Q

CN V

A

Trigeminal nerve,

Biggest CN, 3 branches are Ophthalmic (V1), Maxillary (V2), Mandibular (V3). light touch, proprioceptive info from TMJ, nociceptive and temperature info, pain info but not taste from anterior 2/3rd of tongue, controls muscles of mastication, afferent limb of corneal blink reflex

48
Q

CN VII – Facial nerve

A

controls muscles of facial expression, taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue, parasympathetic component (lacrimal, nasal, salivary glands), general sensations, efferent arm of corneal reflex

49
Q

CN VIII – Vestibulocochlear nerve

A

Vestibular – info about head position/movement with respect to gravity

Cochlear – hearing

50
Q

Sensory organs for vestibular info

A

crista ampullaris in semicircular canals and otolithic organs in utricle and saccule

51
Q

Sensory organ for hearing

A

Organ of Corti

52
Q

Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)

A

Purpose - Stabilize the visual world and prevents it from appearing to bounce/jump during head movements, e.g, when walking

Initiated by vestibular receptors in the 3 fluid-filled semicircular canals in inner ears – info carried by CN VIII to vestibular nuclei

53
Q

Problems with gaze stabilization is…

A

impaired VOR

54
Q

Nystagmus

A

Abnormal oscillating movements of the eyes

Can by spontaneous or gazed-evoked

Due to problems in the CN VIII or central vestibular system

Could also be normal physiologic

55
Q

CN IX – Glossopharyngeal nerve

A

General sensations from posterior 1/3rd of tongue, soft palate, pharynx. Taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue, controls stylopharyngeus muscle, efferent arm by vagus nerve, gag reflex, swallowing reflex

56
Q

Parasympathetic efferent (GVE) of CN IX

A

parotid gland

57
Q

Autonomic afferent (GVA) of CN IX

A

from carotid sinus/body – BP/HR and O2/CO2 concentration

58
Q

CN X – Vagus nerve

A

General sensations from pharynx, larynx (GSA)

Taste from epiglottis/root of tongue (SVA)

Motor (SVE) – ms of pharynx, larynx

Efferent arm of gag and swallowing reflex

59
Q

Parasympathetic efferent (GVE) of CN X

A

to digestive glands in pharynx, larynx, thoracic and abdominal viscera (except lower intestine)

60
Q

Autonomic afferent (GVA) of CN X

A

stretch, visceral pain (referred at times to somatic areas)

61
Q

CN XI – Spinal accessory nerve

A

Spinal component provides innervation to SCM and trapezius (GSE)

Cranial component provides innervation to muscles of the soft palate, larynx and pharynx (SVE)

62
Q

CN XII – Hypoglossal nerve

A

Innervation to intrinsic and extrinsic ms (genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus) of the ipsi side of tongue

Complete lesion of hypoglossal causes atrophy of ipsi tongue muscles.

When asked to protrude, tongue deviates towards the lesioned side – ‘lick your lesion’

63
Q

Functions of the vestibular system

A

Sensory information about head movements and head position relative to gravity

64
Q

Labyrinthine Artery

A

Most often branches off the AICA

Occlusion can cause dizziness and auditory symptoms

May branch directly off of Basilar Artery

Divides into anterior vestibular artery and common cochlear artery

65
Q

Anterior Vestibular Artery

A

Supplies the Vestibular Nerve, Utricle, Horizontal and Anterior Semicircular Canals

Dizziness, but No auditory symptoms

66
Q

Common Cochlear Artery

A

Supplies the Cochlea, Saccule and Posterior Semicircular Canal

Dizziness AND auditory symptoms

67
Q

Hair cells in SC canals bend as…

A

endolymph pushes cupula with angular movements

68
Q

Hair cells in Utricle/Saccule bend due to…

A

gravity or with linear acceleration/deceleration

69
Q

Deflection of the hair cell towards the kinocilia

A

excitatory output

70
Q

Deflection of the hair cell away from the kinocilia

A

inhibitory output

71
Q

Utricular macula

A

responds to horizontal linear acceleration/deceleration, and also to forward/backward head tilts that begin from head in upright position

72
Q

Saccular macula

A

responds to vertical linear movements, and also to leaning sideways, e.g., from sidelying to standing

73
Q

Dizziness/Vertigo

A

Illusion of motion/spinning (self or surroundings)

Impaired gaze stability with head movements, blurry vision – due to impaired VOR

Can be associated with nystagmus, which could be
-Spontaneous (without positional changes) – can be seen in primary gaze position of eyes
-Triggered by positional changes

74
Q

Nystagmus is repetitive involuntary beating movements due to…

A

due to inaccurate signals coming in from peripheral vestibular systems (due to impairments in SC or vestibular nerve) or impairments in central vestibular processing centers (brainstem, cerebellum).

75
Q

Alexander’s Law

A

the amplitude of the nystagmus increases when the eye moves in the direction of the fast phase.

76
Q

Ewald’s Law

A

movement of the eyes during nystagmus occur in the plane of the stimulated canals

77
Q

Vestibular neuritis

A

a peripheral lesion in the vestibulocochlear nerve (pathologic spontaneous nystagmus), for example, left side impaired, eye is beating towards right side, will always be opposite.

78
Q

L posterior canal BPPV

A

a peripheral lesion with otoconia crystals disloged from utricle/saccule that have entered the L posterior canal (pathologic nystagmus with positional changes)

here, the impaired side is the side with the ‘higher firing rate’

79
Q

Peripheral vestibular disorders

A

Vestibular nerve hypofunction (vestibular neuritis, perilymph fistula, Meniere’s disease)
Vestibular apparatus malfunction (BPPV)

Posterior SC
Horizontal SC
Anterior SC

80
Q

Central vestibular disorders

A

Stroke in brainstem/cerebellum
Cerebellar degeneration
Arnold-Chiari malformation

81
Q

Nystagmus from peripheral lesions

A

Direction-fixed beating

Follows Alexander’s and Ewald’s laws
-Beating increases as eyes are moved towards the fast phase
-Beating occurs in the plane of impaired canals
Able to fixate with gaze stabilization

Habituates/compensates rapidly with time

Good outcomes with vestibular rehab

Examples of disorders – vestibular neuritis, BPPV

82
Q

Nystagmus from central lesions

A

-Pure vertical or pure torsional or direction-changing beating depending on gaze
-Does not follow Alexander’s law
-Unable to fixate with gaze stabilization
-Takes longer to habituate/compensate
-Worse (than peripheral) outcomes

Examples of disorders – Stroke in brainstem/cerebellum, medications

83
Q

Cerebellum function

A

Plans for coordinated movements, adjusts movements …and non-motor functions

Despite its important role in motor coordination, it does not have direct connection to motor neurons

So, after cerebellar damage, there is no muscle paralysis or sensory deficits

84
Q

Vestibulocerebellum

A

Controls eye movements and controls neck/trunk axial muscles for postural control.

85
Q

Spinocerebellum

A

Region that helps to execute coordinated movements using both feedback and feedforward mechanisms. Inputs from spinal cord via spinocerebellar pathways, Outputs adjust motor activity by influencing descending medial tracts (posture, tone) and lateral tracts (fine movements)

86
Q

Cerebrocerebellum

A

function is to plan for coordinated movements using feedforward mechanism. Receives direct inputs from pontine nuclei and gives off direct outputs to thalamus.

87
Q

Lesions in vestibulocerebellum

A

nystagmus, difficulty maintaining sitting/standing balance (truncal ataxia)

88
Q

Lesions in spinocerebellum

A

limb incoordination (DDK, dysmetria (lack of precision in movement when trying to reach for a target)), ataxic gait (wide-based unsteady gait). Also, action/intension tremor, dysarthria

89
Q

Lesions in cerebrocerebellum

A

difficulty in planning complex movements (mostly fine movements) along with motor areas, Disruption of timing of joint movements

90
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

plans and executes coordinated motor activity, do not have direct connections to motor neurons. Involved in movement control for goal-directed behavior and helps in judging/decision making by taking into account socially appropriate/inappropriate situations and emotions

91
Q

Goal-directed behavior

A

Example: deciding whether to run a yellow light when running late to work.

92
Q

Lesion in bilateral caudate

A

inattention, distractibility, poor concentration. But no movement disorders.

93
Q

Social behavior

A

Example: deciding whether to run a yellow light with grandma sitting beside you

94
Q

Bilateral caudate head lesions

A

prone to frustration, hypersexual, shoplifting, violent. But no movement disorders

95
Q

Emotional behavior/Limbic circuit

A

Example: involved with emotional and reward/pleasure seeking behavior, links emotions and motor systems

96
Q

Lesions in ventral striatum

A

depression, emotional blunting ‘mask-like’ facial expression

97
Q

Oculomotor circuit

A

To decide whether to use fast eye movements (saccades) to direct attention to visual objects of interest

Lesions in BG can cause impaired saccades

98
Q

Motor circuit

A

This circuit regulates movements by indirectly controlling activity in voluntary muscles, postural muscles and CPG

This loop up- or down-regulates activity in various motor tracts to promote desired movements and inhibit undesired ones

99
Q

Influence of BG on motor pathways…

A

Output of motor circuits is always inhibitory on the motor pathways, which can suppress undesired movements or activate suppressed movements by ‘disinhibition’

100
Q

Go (Direct) Pathway

A

Facilitates desired movements by ‘disinhibiting’ thalamus due to increased inhibitory activity of Striatum on GPi

101
Q

No-go (Indirect) Pathway

A

Suppresses unwanted movements by inhibiting thalamus due to increased inhibitory activity of Striatum on GPe (instead of GPi)

102
Q

Hyperdirect Pathway

A

Purpose is to inhibit all ongoing movements before initiating voluntary movement

103
Q

If the direct pathway becomes less active then…

A

may cause lack/slowness of desired movements, eg bradykinesia.

104
Q

If the indirect pathway becomes less active then…

A

may cause increase in unwanted movements, eg dyskinesia, chorea, ballismus

105
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

Bradykinesia
Freezing of gait
Tremor
Rigidity – cogwheel type
Non-motor signs – Mask-like facial expression, depression, psychosis, dementia

106
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

Chorea (a symptom that causes involuntary movement, irregular, or unpredictable muscle movements)

107
Q

Process of nerve tissue movements

A

With increasing stretch on nerves, first the viscoelastic tubes (endo-, peri- and epineurium) stretch, the axons unfold, the fascicles glide on each other, and finally entire nerve glides relative to surrounding structures. After that tensile stress increases on nerves (nerve stretch)

Process is reverse during shortening

Neuroscience (4 decks)

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