Final Exam Flashcards
The process of selecting observations that will be analyzed for research purposes
Sampling
Homogeneous
Having the same specific characteristics of study
Heterogeneous
Having diverse characteristics of study
What is good about a heterogeneous sample versus a homogeneous one?
Ensures that the sample reflects the variability in the population
The cluster of people, events, things, or other phenomena in which you are interested
Population
The cluster of people/events from or about which you will actually gather data
Sample
Tell me about probabilistic sampling
statistically representative sample
Used with a well-defined population
Enables generalization from sample to populations
Representative sample
Random selection
What is a representative sample?
A sample that resembles the population in all the important ways
Sampling error
Degree to which your sample deviates from the population’s characteristics
Sampling error is due to _____ or ____
random error
Systematic error
The bigger the sample, the _____ the error
smaller
Tell me about simple random samples
Sampling frame
RNG
Sampling frame
Lists every member of the population
Tell me about systematic sampling
Sampling frame
Every kth person
Watch out for periodicity
Periodicity
The tendency for a pattern to occur at regular intervals
Tell me about stratified sampling
Divide population into relevant subgroups
Draw sample from each group
Good for cyclical
Proportional versus disproportionate stratification
Proportional stratification
Each subgroup has the same sampling fraction
Disproportional stratification
Size of subgroup is not necessarily proportionate to population size of group
Tell me about cluster sampling
Samples groups and selects elements from each heterogenous group
Sampling done in stages
Non-probability sampling techniques
A person’s likelihood of being selected for membership in sample is unknown
May not represent the population
Qualitative
Types: Purposive, Snowball, Quota, and convenience
Purposive sample
Begin with specific perspectives, then seek out participants who cover them
Snowball sample
Participants help find more participants
Quota sample
Identify category with some variation
Subgroup for each category
Researcher decides how many people from each subgroup
Convenience sample
Collect data from people or other relevant elements to which s/he has most convenient access
Exploratory research
True or false: 2/3 of U.S. samples published in JPSP were American undergrads in psychology courses
True
Trash in, ____ out
trash
What is the most widely used data collection technique?
Survey
Correlational research
Any non-experimental study in which correlations in data are examined and cause-effect relations are shown
How to conduct a survey:
1.) Develop hypothesis and decide survey type
2.) Write questions
3.) Plan how to record data
4.) Sampling
5.) Locate respondents, conduct interviews, record data
6.) Research report
Things that good survey questions do
avoid confusion
keep respondents perspective in mind
Watch out for leading questions
Avoid jargon, slang, abbreviations, vagueness, emotional lang, issues beyond capabilities, double negatives
Double-barreled question
A confusing survey question that includes 2+ ideas
Leading question
survey question worded such that respondents are pushed to a specific answer or position (BIAS)
Open-ended question
No response categories (qualitative)
Closed-ended question
Fixed answer choices, better
Mutually exclusive question
No overlap
Mutually exhaustive question
Each person has a choice
Social desirability bias
A tendency for the survey respondent to answer in a way that conforms to social expectations or makes them look good rather than answer honestly
Contingency question
2-part question in which the 1st question screens who gets the 2nd question
Keep your the wording in your survey question objective/subjective
objective
Because survey fatigue exists, it’s best to _________
order your meaty questions first
Order effects
Ordering influences respondents’ answers
Pros and cons of mailed/self-administered surveys
Easy, cheap
Low response rate, no control
Pros and cons of telephone interviews
Can reach 95% of population
Must be short, few ppl answer phones nowadays
Pros and cons of face-to-face interviews
Highest response rate
Training, travel, supervision, pricey, interviewer bias (personality)
Pros and cons of web surveys
cheapest, quick responses
not everybody has internet access
Pseudosurvey
Using a survey format in an attempt to persuade others to do something
Examples of measures of central tendency
Mean, mode, median
The _____ is best to use for data analytics when the data is skewed
Median
A simple table showing how many or what percentage of the cases fall into each variable category
Frequency distribution
Quantitative data (univariate)
Percentages, mean, mode, median, frequency distribution
Quantitative data (bivariate)
Bivariate correlation, crosstabulations
Covariation
When two variables go together or are associated with one anotherS
Statistically independent
No covariance
The Spread
Range, SD, percentiles
A crosstabulation table shows _____
two variables on one table
Multivariate analysis
Regression analysis
Regression analysis
A measure that allows the researcher to examine numerous IVs at one time and how those variables impact a DV
If the level of significance is 0.05, what does that mean?
95% certain that the results are not due to chance
Benefits of interviews over surveys
Can ask follow-up questions
Story behind responses
Complex topic
Lengthy explanations
A key difference between qualitative and quantitative interviewing is that qualitative interviews contain _______
open-ended questions
A list of topics or questions that the interviewer hopes to cover during the course of an interview.
Interview guide
True or false: It takes a skilled interviewer to be able to ask questions and actually listen to respondents; and pick up on cues about when to follow up, when to move on, and when to simply let the participant speak without guidance or interruption.
True
Bringing an _____, as opposed to a very long list of detailed questions, to an interview encourages the researcher to actually listen to what a participant is telling her.
outline
As with quantitative survey research, it is best not to place _______ questions at the very beginning of your qualitative interview guide so that participants have a chance to warm up first.
sensitive/controversial
Tips for interviews
No yes/no questions
Don’t ask “why?”
Avoid leading questions
The key to a successful qualitative interview is giving participants the opportunity to ______
share information in their own words and in their own way.
It is probably most common for qualitative interviewers to take _____ ______ of the interviews they conduct.
audio recordings
Focus group
When multiple respondents participate in an interview at the same time,
Benefits of focus groups
May think of new ideas or questions
Body language + interactions
Oral histories
Data collection that records, in writing, material that might otherwise be forgotten by those who are unlikely to create a written record or produce archival materials. It involves interviewing people about their past to ensure that their history is not lost and is therefore available to future generations
The accuracy of the oral history rests on two facts:
1.) Memories are not recollections of stories but actually happened.
2.) Stories are shared in the context of the potlatch (feast) system.
Benefits of videography
Accurately record events
Enable researchers to verify their observations through multiple raters
Permit the researcher to repeatedly review the video record.
It is particularly valuable for measuring performance and verifying self-reported behaviors against observed behaviors
One of the most significant concerns related to collecting data via video is _______ of the participants.
confidentiality
Analysis of qualitative interview data typically begins with ______
a set of transcripts, including noted body language and gestures
Overall, the goal of analysis is to reach some inferences, lessons, or conclusions by condensing large amounts of data into relatively smaller, more manageable bits of understandable information
Yes
CODE
A code is a shorthand representation of some more complex set of issues or ideas.
Deductive coding
Begins with the analyst utilizing specific or pre-defined interests to identify “relevant” passages, quotes, images, scenes, etc., to develop a set of preliminary codes. From there, the analyst elaborates on these preliminary codes, making finer distinctions within each coding category
