final exam

Question 1

economically motivated interest groups

Answer 1

focused on money/economy (labor unions, National Association of Manufacturers)

Question 2

types of interest groups (4)

Answer 2

1. economically motivated
2. professionally motivated
3. ideologically motivated
4. public interest groups

Question 3

professionally motivated interest groups

Answer 3

focused on protecting a profession (American Bar Association, American Medical Association)

Question 4

ideologically motivated interest groups

Answer 4

focused on right/wrong; morals (environmental groups; Greenpeace International)

Question 5

public interest groups

Answer 5

National Governors Association, US Conference of Mayors

Question 6

interest group activities (4)

Answer 6

1. public relations work
2. electioneering
3. lobbying
4. unconventional activities (marches, protests, civil disobedience)

Question 7

interest group resources (4)

Answer 7

1. money
2. size
3. esprit de corps (spirit of the vibe)
4. leadership/organization

Question 8

schools of thought on the privileged position of business thesis (3)

Answer 8

1. business interests are privileged and environmental interests are disadvantaged
2. business interests do not dominate, environmental interests can and do influence policymaking
3. stalemate - neither business nor environmental interests dominate policymaking

Question 9

bureaucratic principle of organization (4)

Answer 9

a form of organization and management based upon:
1. division of labor and specialization
2. hierarchy and a chain of command
3. management based upon files and rules
4. professionalism and expertise

Question 10

sources of bureaucratic power (4)

Answer 10

1. expertise: knowledge is power
2. rule-making and/or discretion: make, execute, and adjudicate rules
3. efficiency: the continuous and methodical pursuit and attainment of objectives
4. the mobilization of support: public opinion (popularity); clientele politics

Question 11

types of bureaucracy (3)

Answer 11

1. the executive institutions of the government (the administrative state)
2. a principle of organization and work
3. a process of historical transformation (bureaucratization)

Question 12

Pressman & Wildavsky definition of implementation and key findings (4)

Answer 12

to carry out, accomplish, fulfill, and complete
1. implementation is not divorced from policy
2. policymakers need to carefully consider the means for accomplishing their chosen ends
3. continuity of leadership is important
4. complexity leads to breakdown

Question 13

Van Meter & Van Horn definition of implementation and key findings (4)

Answer 13

those actions by public and private individuals (or groups) that are directed at the achievement of objectives set forth in prior policy decisions
1. implementers may screen out a clear message when the decision seems to contradict deeply cherished beliefs
2. those holding intense negative preferences may be led to outright and open defiance of the program’s objectives
3. less intense attitudes may cause implementers to attempt surreptitious diversion and evasion
4. psychological factors include those not related to policy beliefs

Question 14

McLaughlin definition of implementation and key findings (2)

Answer 14

implementation as a process of mutual adaptation
1. the amount of interest, commitment, and support evidenced by the principal actors had a major influence of the prospects for success
2. given different degrees of implementers’ receptivity to policy change, identifies 3 kinds of interactions: mutual adaptation, co-optation, non-implementation

Question 15

Bardach definition of implementation and key findings (2)

Answer 15

an assembly process which involves putting the machine together and making it run
1. implementation is an ongoing attempt to exercise control through bargaining, persuasion, and maneuvering under conditions of uncertainty
2. recognizing and classifying the strategies available to implementers under varying conditions is the key to understanding implementation

Question 16

Rein & Rabinovitz definition of implementation and key finding (4)

Answer 16

implementation is a:
1. declaration of government preferences
2. mediated by a number of actors who
3. create a circular process characterized by a reciprocal power relations and negotiations
key finding:
1. one of the consequences of passing ambiguous legislation is that the arena of decision-making shifts to a lower level interest group pressures are brought to bear largely after legislation is passed

Question 17

Steelman definition of implementation

Answer 17

a rational administrative process with a formal institutional structure, focused information, and resource allocation central to the policy goal

Question 18

the advocacy-coalitions framework

Answer 18

alliances among formal and informal actors are required to make public policy

Question 19

policy beliefs of the advocacy-coalition framework (3)

Answer 19

1. deep core beliefs
2. policy core beliefs
3. secondary beliefs/aspects

Question 20

deep core beliefs

Answer 20

fundamental beliefs about (and orientations to) such things as society and government or human nature; deep core beliefs are difficult to change

Question 21

policy core beliefs

Answer 21

relatively stable beliefs that convert deep core beliefs so as to more easily guide policy; they more clearly specify the nature of the policy problem as well as the possible solution

Question 22

secondary beliefs/aspects

Answer 22

beliefs are narrow in scope and are often portrayed as the instrumental decisions and informational processes focused on implementing the policy core beliefs; secondary beliefs are the easiest to change

Question 23

Vig’s types of environmental presidents (3)

Answer 23

1. opportunistic leaders (Nixon, George HW Bush)
2. frustrated underachievers (Carter, Clinton, Obama)
3. rollback advocates (Reagan, Trump)

Question 24

Lowi’s typology variables (2)

Answer 24

1. probability of government coercion: the probability of governmental restraint, restriction, or other form of control
2. degree of disaggregation: the extent to which policy decisions are made in a non-cumulative fashion, at the level of the individual or small unit, and without consideration as to how the policies inter-relate or the overall impact

Question 25

Lowi’s typology outcomes (4)

Answer 25

1. distributive policies
2. regulatory policies
3. self-regulatory policies
4. redistributive policies

Question 26

Lowi’s typology distributive policies

Answer 26

(low governmental coercion, high disaggregation) aimed at promoting private activities said to be desirable to society as a whole and that are not likely to be undertaken without some kind of encouragement or support

Question 27

Lowi’s typology regulatory policies

Answer 27

(high governmental coercion, medium aggregation) policies that either limit the provision of specific goods and services to only a few at most, who are chosen from a large number of potential recipients (competitive) or designed to protect the public by setting the conditions under which certain private activities can be undertaken (protective)

Question 28

Lowi’s typology self-regulatory policies

Answer 28

(low governmental coercion, medium disaggregation) regulatory policies that are or have become protective of the interests of the regulated rather than the public at large

Question 29

Lowi’s typology redistributive policies

Answer 29

(high governmental coercion, low disaggregation) policies intended to manipulate the allocation of wealth among social classes or racial groups; they produce very clear winners and losers for these policies transfer some value to one group at the expense of another

Question 30

Salisbury & Heinz’s typology variables (2)

Answer 30

1. information costs: the degree of difficulty in (a) obtaining information about the policy issue, including information about the preferences of other key actors, and (b) negotiation costs, that is, the degree of difficulty in building consensus and a coalition
2. demand pattern: the strength (organization and otherwise) and/or scale (local, regional, national, etc.) of the petition to government

Question 31

Salisbury & Heinz’s typology allocative policies

Answer 31

policies that actually disperse benefits

Question 32

Salisbury & Heinz’s typology structural policies

Answer 32

de jure (by law) or de facto (of right) delegations of authority

Question 33

Wilson’s typology variables (2)

Answer 33

1. perceived costs (concentrated/dispersed)
2. perceived benefits (concentrated/dispersed)

Question 34

Wilson’s typology outcomes (4)

Answer 34

1. interest group politics (concentrated perceived benefits, concentrated perceived costs)
2. client politics (concentrated perceived benefits, dispersed perceived costs)
3. entrepreneurial politics (dispersed perceived benefits, concentrated perceived costs)
4. majoritarian politics (dispersed perceived benefits, dispersed perceived costs)

Question 35

What is partial preemption and why does Hopper think it important?

Answer 35

With respect to states creating their own implementation plans “aimed at maintaining the standards set by the federal government … the EPA simply ‘sets a floor below which standards may not fall’”
Importance:
In the enforcement of most federal environmental protection laws, state agencies get to determine what constitutes a violation of the law, whether a violation should be noted as severe or minor, which industries are subject to inspection and how often, and what enforcement actions are appropriate … States’ environmental agencies drive the direction of environmental policy

Question 36

Hopper groups the determinants of environmental enforcement into one of three categories. What are the categories?

Answer 36

1. environmental need: driven by the state’s natural environmental order, along with the relationship between industry and pollution that has altered that natural order
2. state capacity: State institutions, including courts, executives, legislatures, and bureaucracies, differ significantly in regard to their professionalization, time in office/at work, susceptibility to outside pressure, powers, and the ability to wield those powers …affect[ing] the ability of state governments to build environmental programs and implement those programs effectively and efficiently
3. state willingness: In competition with each other for industry, state and local governments may set less-stringent environmental standards than does the federal government in hopes of attracting business’

Question 37

State-level environmental agencies are structured in one of three main ways. What are the three main ways?

Answer 37

1. mini-EPAs
2. combined public health and environmental protection agencies (PHEPs)
3. Combined natural resource conservation and environmental protection agencies (NREPs)

Question 38

What are Hopper’s four arguments about environmental agency design?

Answer 38

1. any combination of policy areas within a single agency allows for some tasks and mandates to be prioritized over others or for parts of the agency’s programming to be neglected
2. public health and natural resource agencies have their own regulatory preferences that often include prioritizing the inclusion of industry stakeholders, considering cost, and focusing on education and planning
3. the economic, social, and political pressure placed on state-level bureaucrats uniquely positions them to favor the regulatory preferences embraced by public health and natural resource agencies, particularly as these approaches are growing more common within environmental regulation and when funding and implementation structures exist that bring regulators closer to citizens
4. the strength of agency design in shaping day-to-day enforcement decisions is dependent upon state agencies’ capacity and the capacity of those institutions with which agencies compete for influence

Question 39

Why does Hopper argue that “structures and values of American state-level environmental agencies … affect environmental agency employees’ efforts at collaboration, the way they seek common ground with industry, and the decisions they make about when and how to issue punishment for the violation of environmental rules”?

Answer 39

because of the powerful impact that organizational characteristics can have on those individuals who work within them … Structures and values are not short-term organizational forces; they perpetuate across time, continuing to affect ‘the way things are done around here

Question 40

“Natural resources conservation programming and environmental protection programming mirror each other in their attempts to control certain types of behavior, such as the exploitation of natural resources or the excessive release of toxic emissions, respectively. However, while the two policy areas are rooted in regulation, the focus and purpose of regulatory programs are fundamentally different.” Why does Hopper come to this conclusion?

Answer 40

Natural resource conservation typically includes the maintenance of state parks, lands, and animal populations, along with the control of state resources, such as oil, natural gas, minerals, and timber. Conversely, environmental regulation focuses on the control of air and water pollution … [S]tates tend to focus more on controlling wildlife for the purposes of hunting, while environmental regulators … are more focused on the maintenance of healthy ecosystems … [S]tate-level natural resource conservation involves some consideration of both how to protect resources and how to protect the industries that make those resources economically fruitful … Conversely, environmental regulators are often asked to regulate the behavior of industries, with no guarantee that regulation will not disrupt an industry’s economic contributions to the state

Question 41

Stoke’s definition of policy feedback

Answer 41

the idea that public policies can reshape the political landscape, changing both the content of policy and the likelihood of its passage

Question 42

Stoke’s path dependency

Answer 42

past decisions and actions can constrain or shape future choices and developments; policies are put onto a certain path once made

Question 43

Stoke’s retrenchment (3)

Answer 43

policy change that:
1. repeals or weakens policy targets or funding
2. restructures policies in a way that reduces their efficacy at addressing the problem, or
3. alters the policy’s context in a way that increases the potential for retrenchment

Question 44

stoke’s direct retrenchment

Answer 44

directly interacting with policymakers and implementers, ex: lobbying, contributions, relationships, implementation resistance

Question 45

stoke’s indirect retrenchment

Answer 45

using parties, the courts, and the public (used when not in power)

Question 46

Stoke’s answer to the debate

Answer 46

interest groups shape how the policy is enacted and implemented; language is too complicated for interest groups to understand