Final Exam Flashcards
What did Malthus believe regarding population growth?
Population would outgrow food production.
(T/F) Charles David Keeling began measuring the atmospheric concentration of CO2 in a lab atop Mauna Lao in the 1950s. This was incredibly fortunate, since the atmospheric concentration of CO2 also BEGAN increasing exponentially in the 1950s.
false
(T/F) The term climate change refers to ALL oscillations (e.g., ice ages and warm periods) in the atmospheric concentration of CO2, dating back hundreds of thousands of years.
False
The outcome of the wager between Ehrlich and Simon suggested that the effects of population growth on the environment
are mediated by market incentives and innovation.
(T/F) Due to the equatorial bulge, in which the rotational speed of the Earth is faster at the equator than the Poles, the Poles will experience a higher sea-level rise from climate change than regions near the equator.
False
(T/F) Due to the equatorial bulge, in which the rotational speed of the Earth is faster at the equator than the Poles, the Poles will experience a higher sea-level rise from climate change than regions near the equator.
False
The data used to construct the Keeling Curve come from
direct measurements of carbon dioxide
The Coase Theorem asserts that
the optimal distribution of all goods (bads) will be realized as long as 1.) property rights are clearly defined and 2.) transaction costs from bargaining are negligible.
Some critics of the demographic transition model argue that _____________ is the factor that best explains low fertility rates globally.
women’s empowerment
The movement of CO2 among the atmosphere, oceans, plants, and soils, following its release via the burning of fossil fuels from the Earth’s crust, is called
the carbon cycle
Earth’s oceans have moderated the increasing atmospheric concentration of CO2, tempering the effects of climate change so far. This is because oceans serve as
carbon sinks
Environmental regulations such as command-and-control, marketable permits, and carbon taxes look to eliminate
negative externalities
The demographic transition model proceeds in this order: (1) the death rate falls; (2) the birth rate falls; (3) population growth returns to a stable, low, or decreasing rate.
true
A developed country is likely to emit less carbon dioxide PER CAPITA than a developing country.
False
The Coase Theorem concludes that efficiency is ONLY reached when the party adversely affected by pollution is entitled to complete property rights.
false
Command and Control regulation is a
uniform emissions reduction that disregards firms’ cost structures.
The Keeling Curve shows an increasing trend, with annual fluctuations, in the atmospheric concentration of CO2.
true
The manner in which humans have changed the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is analogous to
cyanobacteria changing the makeup of the atmosphere two billion years ago, generating more oxygen and less carbon dioxide.
(T/F) The greenhouse effect is an abnormal process.
False
Regarding a negative externality, the difference between the social marginal-cost curve (MCsocial) and the private marginal-cost curve (MCprivate) equals
the cost of environmental degradation
Warmer waters impair oceanic carbon sequestration, because
warmer waters are less capable of absorbing carbon dioxide
Evidence from the I = PAT equation shows that
affluence has the greatest environmental impact, and technology can increase or decrease environmental impacts.
The equimarginal principle, or a price restriction, states that
efficiency requires polluters to have the same marginal cost of abatement.
Global population growth rates are trending toward zero, because developed countries have experienced negative growth rates in the second half of the twentieth century.
true
The greenhouse effect is the process in which
atmospheric gases absorb heat, maintaining suitable temperatures for life on Earth.
The demographic transition model shows population growth as a function of resource scarcity.
false
Theoretically, an appropriately priced carbon tax is equal to
the permit price in a “cap-and-trade” program.
Market-based solutions are inefficient compared to a command-and-control regulation.
false
The carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms that a system can sustain.
true
In Stage 4, the demographic transition model hypothesizes that
birth rates are low and death rates are low
The process in which CO2 from the atmosphere is captured and stored is known as
carbon sequestration
In the demographic transition model, the declining death rate in Stage 2 stabilizes population growth.
true
(Cost of abatement graph. 3 MC Curves all going down.)
This graph illustrates a command-and-control policy instrument; that is, a quantity restriction.
false
(Cost of abatement graph. 3 MC Curves all going down.)
The equimarginal principle is satisfied in this pollution market involving three firms.
true
(Cost of abatement graph. 3 MC Curves all going down.)
Is this policy instrument economically efficient?
Yes, because each firm abates a quantity of emissions determined by its marginal cost of abatement.
(Cost of abatement graph. 3 MC Curves all going down.)
These three firms’ marginal costs of abatement are ranked from highest to lowest in the following order:
Firm 1, Firm 2, Firm 3
A market-based solution to environmental degradation, in which a pollution limit is set and permits to pollute are exchanged, is known as
cap-and-trade
Most of the Earth’s carbon is stored in its
crust
The Environmental Kuznets curve theorizes that
environmental impacts increase during economic development, only to fall after an economy matures.
Neo-Malthusians view __________ as the main limit of population growth.
scarce resources!
The kind of market failure in which ALL costs and benefits fail to show up in a good’s price is called
a monopoly
In the Malthusian demographic model, disease, famine, and war arise due to
periods of demographic crisis and correction
If the competitive-market assumptions are valid, the price of a marketable permit is GREATER than a per-unit carbon tax.
false
WRITTEN ANSWER: (Cost of abatement graph. 3 MC Curves all going down.)
- Which type of policy instrument, or restriction, is shown in this graph? (2 points)
- At a*, which firm faces the highest marginal cost of abatement? Which firm faces the lowest marginal cost of abatement? Is it economically efficient for these firms to each face different costs of abatement? (2 points)
- If there were no regulations in this market, what would be the marginal benefit of emissions (MB(e) = ?) of each firm at the point at which they stopped polluting? Where is this point located on the graph? (2 points)
- If these firms are permitted to trade for the right to generate pollution (i.e., a marketable permits program), which firm would end up purchasing the most permits? Which firm would end up selling the most permits? According to the Coase Theorem, would a marketable permits program be worthwhile if transaction costs are very expensive? (2 points)
1.) A command-and-control policy instrument is shown.
2.) At a*, firm 1 faces the highest cost of abatement and firm 3 faces the lowest cost of abatement. This is because firm 1 has higher emissions, so they have to lower them more dramatically than firm 3, who has the lowest initial quantity of emissions. It is not economically efficient for these firms to face different costs because it is never efficient when you have different firms with different emission quantities paying the same price.
3.) Without regulation, the firms would pollute until their marginal benefit equals 0.
4.) Firm 1 would end up purchasing the most permits because they operate on a system that has higher emissions. Firm 3 would sell the most permits because they would not need as many due to having lower emissions. A marketable permits program would not be worthwhile because it is only efficient if there are no transaction costs.
(WRITTEN ANSWER): (Marginal Benefit Curve going down. A Marginal Cost Social Curve at the top going up, and a Marginal Cost Private Curve below that one going up as well.)
- Which type of externality is shown in the graph? (2 points)
- Identify the equilibrium price and quantity from a private transaction where environmental degradation is omitted from consideration (green or blue dot?). Identify the socially optimal equilibrium price and quantity, which accounts for for environmental degradation (green or blue dot?). (2 points)
- Identify the letter approximating deadweight loss; that is, the region reflecting lost value (MB
≠
MC) from under- or over-consumption. This occurs when the private market, rather than socially optimal considerations, determines the quantity of consumption and production. (2 points) - Would the tax required to shift consumption to the appropriate quantity simply equal the difference in equilibrium prices:
δ
-
α
? If not, why is the difference in prices insufficient? (2 points)
1.) A negative externality is shown in the graph.
2.) The blue dot.
b.) The green dot.
3.) The area labeled C identifies the deadweight loss.
4.) The tax required to shift consumption would not equal the difference in equilibrium prices. The equilibrium price is insufficient because there is overconsumption. If you wanted to shift the quantity to be at equilibrium, you would need to have consumption at Q2
(T/F) Peter Singer, who supports the animal liberation movement, believes that all sentient beings have instrumental value.
False
(T/F) John Locke hypothesizes a utilitarian view of nature in which anything that is left unused – assuming that scarcity is not imminent – has no value and is wasted.
True
Anthropocentrism is a traditional Western ethical perspective that assigns _________________________ .
intrinsic value to humans but instrumental to nature
Singer terms the unequal treatment of animals by humans as _____________ .
speciesism
(T/F) Historical evidence reveals that the commons described by Hardin were a fixture of the medieval period.
False
(T/F) Deep ecology uses theories like embodied cognition to demonstrate that human cognition is inseparable from its environment.
True
Of the proposed solutions to the tragedy of the commons listed below, Hardin would likely support ____________ .
privatization
(T/F) A dominant strategy in the tragedy of the commons is for each herder to add another animal to the grazing pasture.
True
According to Singer, the moral equality afforded to human beings should be granted to animals. His justification is based on ____________________ .
normative prescriptions that govern human behavior
Research by Ostrom suggests that contemporary commons management must include each of the following EXCEPT
privatization
Leopold’s land ethic is an example of a holistic environmental ethic. This means that all parts of an ecosystem – sentient and nonsentient – should receive moral consideration.
True
Moral extensionism is an environmental ethic that supports _____________________ .
extending intrinsic value beyond human beings to incorporate all aspects of nature
(T/F) The eco-Marxist “logic” of development suggests that privatization increases environmental degradation, causing greater competition among capitalist sectors for remaining high-quality lands.
True
(T/F) Instrumental value defines the worth that something has – for example, nature – independent of its value to humans.
False
The lands comprising the historical commons were called _____________ .
the lords “waste”
(T/F) Utilitarians who do not endorse Singer’s ethical stance believe that animals, and their habitats, have intrinsic value.
False
Locke’s ethics were fundamentally about one’s inviolable right to _____________ rather than environmental degradation.
property
White, the historian and author of The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis, argues that Judeo-Christian morality has encouraged the exploitation of nature by asserting that _________________________ .
human beings are separate to nature
(T/F) In the prisoner’s dilemma, the best aggregate outcome is reached when both actors behave selfishly.
False
(T/F) In the prisoner’s dilemma, a Nash equilibrium is reached when both prisoners lack a dominant strategy.
False
(T/F) Anthropocentric utilitarianism is an environmental ethic that arose in the twentieth century, which asserts that nature has intrinsic value.
false
(T/F) Hardin’s thought experiment regarding the tragedy of the commons has been described as Tonypandy. This occurs when historically inaccurate narratives are perpetuated, resulting in fictional accounts displacing the truth.
true
One of Hardin’s solutions to the tragedy of the commons is privatization. This stems from the economic rationale that a property owner will ______________________ .
consume land to the point where ALL value has been exhausted (MB = 0)
Singer argues that the essential criterion legitimizing the moral equality of humans and animals is _________________ .
the capacity to suffer
Human _________ has been used to throughout the history of Western ethics to justify anthropocentrism.
rationality
Leopold’s land ethic argues for ___________________ .
moral extensionism
(T/F) The tragedy of the commons asserts that the atmosphere is essentially common property shared by all countries – that is, a global commons. According to the prisoner’s dilemma, this incentivizes countries to cut emissions.
false
(T/F) tragedy of the commons is an example of prisoners dilemma
true
Cooperation by both players in a one-period prisoner’s dilemma leads to _________________ .
the best aggregate outcome
According to the tragedy of the commons, a country free-rides on international CO2 emissions cuts because ____________________ .
the costs of unabated economic growth are diffuse, whereas the benefits are concentrated
Singer’s call for of the moral equality of all animals is an extension of which ethical system?
utilitarianism
(T/F) Deep ecology focuses on specific environmental issues, targeting the “symptoms” of a pernicious disease rather than the disease itself.
false
Public goods, such as sunshine and military defense, are nonexcludable and nonrivalrous. Common-resource goods, such as finite public lands and ocean fishing, are _______________________ .
nonexcludable and rivalrous
Issues related to shallow ecology include ______________________ .
policies combating pollution and resource depletion
The claim by Aristotle that “nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man” is an example of ______________ .
anthropocentrism
(T/F) The glorification of nature has been a dominant theme in Western philosophy, dating back to the ethics of Aristotle.
false
(T/F) The free-rider problem is an essential component motivating individual behavior in The Tragedy of the Commons.
true
(T/F) Ethics or moral philosophy stresses normative ideals: what should be the case, NOT what is the case. Consequently, moral principles can be verified by scientific observation.
false
(t/f) “Atomistic individualism” (i.e., atomism), which supports the “separate essence” of human beings, is compatible with deep ecology.
false
(t/f) The price of cheap meat reveals the ecocentric morality governing factory farming.
false
Imagine a commons that is used by two local herders (Herders A and B) for livestock grazing. The common property is approaching its threshold capacity, with respect to the number of grazing animals, and additional grazers will soon begin to corrode the common land. The herders have reached a one-time agreement for the upcoming month whereby they will maintain the current number of livestock on the common property, and any additional animals that require grazing will be supported on their respective private lands. Of course, the herders are only human. Thus, their behavior will ultimately be motivated by their incentives, defined below.
(Herder A row player, header B column player)
500, 500 | 150, 650
650, 150 | 250, 250
- Is there a dominant strategy for Herder A? Herder B? If so, what is the dominant strategy for Herder A or Herder B, or Herder A and Herder B?
- What is the Nash equilibrium?
- Of the four possible scenarios, which generates the largest cumulative payoff? Which generates the smallest cumulative payoff? Is either scenario the equilibrium outcome?
- Yes, there is a dominant strategy for both herders. For Herder A, the dominant strategy would be to cheat; they stand to earn the more profit whether the other herder cheated or cooperated than if they chose to cooperate. The same can be said for herder B.
- The Nash equilibrium would be if both Herder A and Herder B were to cheat. Although this does not result in the highest aggregate price, it is the Nash equilibrium because each herder has higher incentive to cheat.
- The largest cumulative payoff is achieved if a herder cheats (earning $650) while the other cooperates (earning $150). The smallest cumulative payoff is achieved if a herder cooperates (earning $150) while the other cheats (earning $650). Neither of these scenarios result in an equilibrium outcome.
- What is anthropocentrism?
- What is ecocentrism?
- Name and define the two essential categories of value that determine the ethical significance of our behavior. What type of value does nature have in an anthropocentric ethical system? An ecocentric ethical system? Explain.
- How does Locke’ theory of property put forward a particular environmental ethic? What, for example, would it suggest is the proper use for a tract of uncut “old-growth” forest?
- Anthropocentrism is a human-centered ethical perspective. It places human beings at the center in the development of reasoning, morals, and decision making.
- Ecocentrism is an ecosystem-centered ethical perspective. It includes humans along with animals, plants, and nature as a whole in the development of reasoning, morals, and decision making.
- The two categories of value are “intrinsic” and “instrumental” value. Intrinsic value is defined as something have inherent value in and of itself. Instrumental value is defined as something that has value as means to an end. Anthropocentric ethical systems view nature as having instrumental value because it is determined by what benefits can be derived from it. Ecocentric ethical systems view nature as having intrinsic value just as it exists.
- Locke’s theory of property puts forward an anthropocentric ethic. In this theory, freedom is classified as owning property, labor, and to be able to obtain fruits from said labor/property. It would suggest that uncut “old-growth” forest should be utilized upon and if it were to be left as is, then it would be considered a “waste” of resources.
Utilitarianism asserts that “it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong.” Accordingly, the ethical objective of utilitarianism is the maximization of happiness and pleasure, and the minimization of pain and suffering. Utilitarianism before Singer’s extended application, however, applied only to human beings.
Why does Singer regard this restriction as arbitrary or illogical?
Is Singer’s understanding of one’s right to equal treatment based on actual, measurable equality? Explain.
Does Singer support the extension of ethics beyond human beings to land, plants, soils, AND animals? Explain.
- Singer regards this as arbitrary because he believes that all sentient beings have intrinsic value. Utilitarianism was based upon nature having instrumental value and allowed for humans to capitalize on this. Human interaction with nature and animals in this view is cruel and derives suffering from animals; therefore, it is immoral to have this restriction of purely human maximization.
- Singer’s understanding of one’s right to equality is not based on measurable equality. This is because if equality were measured in this way, then no human would be equal. We all come in varying shapes and sizes with different skillsets and histories; therefore, equality is not truly measured on these characteristics.
- Singer supports the extension of ethics beyond human; however, this does not mean that he believes that all are considered equal. Singer supports the idea that all sentient beings (having the ability to suffer) should have equal consideration. In a paper by Singer, he explains this through the analogy of voting. It is validated for people to have the right to vote, but it is illogical to give animals such as dogs the right to vote due to lack of awareness.
