Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Observation as it happens, without manipulation or attempt to control the environment

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2
Q

What are field experiments?

A

Experiment done outside in the real world where the researcher manipulates and controls the conditions of the behavior under observation

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3
Q

Observation are usually captured in two ways, what are they?

In order to get clear results

A

Qualitatively - collect opinions, notes, or general observations
Quantitatively - any attempt to measure or count specific behaviors

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4
Q

Hawthorne Effect, and who created the idea?

A

Animals and people reactively change their behavior once they become aware they are being observed. Chiesa and Hobbs

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5
Q

Case Study

A

In-depth analysis of a unique circumstance or individual

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6
Q

What is Henry Molaison’s story?

A

Case study - aggressive seizures after falling off bike, surgeons destroy tissue in his brain to stop seizures but cause him to suffer from anterograde amnesia. Helped with the study of how the hippocampus forms memories.

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7
Q

Procedural Memories

A

Contents pertain to how something is done, such as motor skills for riding a bike

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8
Q

What source of obtaining data would you use when studying larger patterns of behavior?

A

Surveys

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9
Q

Sampling Error

A

Sample deviating from a true representation of a population. Cannot be applied back to the entire population

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10
Q

Response Bias

A

Tendency for people to answer the question in a way that they feel they are EXPECTED to answer

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11
Q

Acquiescent Response Bias

A

Tendency for participants to agree or respond “yes” to all questions regardless of their actual opinions

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12
Q

Socially Desirable Bias

A

Participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as acceptable by others

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13
Q

Illusory Superiority

A

Tendency to describe our own behavior as better than average.

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14
Q

Volunteer Bias

A

Bias whereby only a motivated fraction of a population respond to a survey or participate in research

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15
Q

Vulnerable Populations

A

Any group of individuals who may not be able to provide free and informed consent to participate in research

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16
Q

What two criteria must vulnerable populations have?

A

Decisional Impairment - diminished capacity to provide informed consent ex. children, mentally disabled
Situational Vulnerability - freedom of choice is compromised as a result of undue influence from another source ex. military personnel, prisoners

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17
Q

In case of decisional impairment, consent for research participation requires two types of consent:

A

Parent or guardian provide informed consent and participant muse provide assent (affirmative permission to take part in the study)

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18
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

Numerical representation of the strength of the relationship between variables (value ranges from -1 to +1)
-Positive and negative signs mean the direction of relationship. Whereas the value, or number, is the strength.
-Cannot go past value of 1 (-/+)

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19
Q

Extraneous or Confounding Variable

A

Other variables that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, thereby influencing the correlation coefficient (or outcome of the research)

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20
Q

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

A

Correlation - relationship between two variables that can help make predications about behavior and the possible causation
Causation - the notion that one variable directly affects another variable

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21
Q

Independent Variable (IV)

A

Variable that experiment manipulates. IV always comes first, before any measurement is taken

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22
Q

Dependent Variable (DV)

A

Variable experimenter counts or measures. The IV is the CAUSE of the change and the dependent variable is the EFFECT of that change

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23
Q

Stratified Random Sampling

A

Taking a population and dividing into subgroups, then randomly taking samples in proportion to the population of interest.

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24
Q

Internal VS. External Validity (Experiments)

A

Control factors that may bias the outcome of the experiment (controlling the IV).
VS
Do the results of the experiment apply in the real world?

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25
Q

Generalization

A

External validity of how results from an experiment can apply to other settings, other people, and other time periods

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26
Q

Standard Deviation (SD)

A

Common use of measuring variability. Relates to the mean (sum of all values) of data

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27
Q

Neurons AND Glial Cells

A

Cells transmitting electrical pulses for communication AND 7 different kinds of helper cells that assist neurons in their role as the brain’s communicators, and provide structural support

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28
Q

What are dendrites?

A

Extensions of cell body membrane that branch out to communicate with other neurons

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29
Q

Neurotransmitter action

A

They are chemicals released from the end of an axon that acts as messages to other neurons and body parts. These chemicals typically bind to receptors on the ends of dendrites

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30
Q

Receptors located on dendrites

A

Proteins that are embedded in the cell body membrane and are built to receive chemical messages from neurotransmitters

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31
Q

How does the sharing of messages between neurons happen?

A

Burst of electrical energy (action potential) in the neuron that signals it to release a neurotransmitter

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32
Q

What are the +/- electrically charged particles in our bodies called?

A

Ions - they create electricity

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33
Q

What are the ions involved with the process of action potential?

A

Na+, Cl-, and K+

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34
Q

What are the charges associated with polarized and depolarized cells?

A

Polarized - negative charge of around - 70 mV, cell is at rest and will not release neurotransmitters
Depolarization - positive and moving away from the state of being polarized. More action potential this way

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35
Q

How is the problem solved when more Na+ channels fill up?

A

More gated channels open for a rush of Na+ (propagation)

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36
Q

Propagation

A

Process by which electrical impulses get sent to the end of a neuron

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37
Q

What ions are required to produce the action potential VS maintain resting potential?

A

AP: Na+ RUSHING IN depolarizes the neuron
RP: K+ RUSHING OUT polarizes the neuron (resetting it)

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38
Q

Excitatory VS Inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

Causes a neuron to move closer to activation (more positive)
VS
Causes the charge inside a neuron to move away from activation (more negative)

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39
Q

True or False: A neuron may receive inputs from both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

TRUE

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40
Q

What is the reference of a lock and key in neuronal membranes?

A

The lock is like a protein receptor binding, and a key is like a neurotransmitter in binding. Made to fit into a specially shaped binding site (lock) on the receptor (door)

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41
Q

Presynaptic neuron

A

Neuron that releases the neurotransmitter from its axon terminal

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42
Q

Postsynaptic neuron

A

Other side of the synapse. Neuron side that contains receptors (on dendrites) ready to bind neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron

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43
Q

Where are neurotransmitters created on the neuron?

A

Presynaptic Neuron

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44
Q

Is GABA an inhibitory or excitatory receptor?

A

Inhibitory - binds with receptor to open a chloride channel, which is negative, more likely to be inactivated

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45
Q

What is a description of a nerve?

A

Large bundle of axons from many neurons bundled into a tube that extends a large distance

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46
Q

What are axons?

A

Long, narrow projection from the cell body

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47
Q

Efferents VS Afferents

A

Axons carrying signals AWAY from the CNS
VS
Axons that carry signals TO the CNS

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48
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

Ability of neurons and networks to change. Gain and lose neurons, grow new dendrites, and change amount of receptors and neurotransmitters

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49
Q

Neocortex (think CEO of a company)

A

Outer part of brain with bumps (gyri) and valleys (sulci), responsible for all the high-level processing of info

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50
Q

Medulla (worksite and onsite managers of corporation)

A

Part of brain closest to your spinal cord that helps regulate basic life functions like breathing and heart rate

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51
Q

Peripheral nervous system (is below brain and connects to spinal cord) split into two divisions, what are they?

A

Somatic - controls the movement of head, torso, and limbs. Control and communicate with skeletal muscles
Autonomic (automatic) - part of nervous system that controls the more automatic functions of the body

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52
Q

Nerves leaving the spinal cord or brain are shared and go down into what?

A

Peripheral Nervous System

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53
Q

The autonomic system is further divided into what two divisions?

A

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

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54
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

Division of autonomic nervous system that is responsible for things we do that require excitement. Ex. rapid heartbeat, high blood temp., dilates pupil

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55
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

Division of autonomic nervous system that is responsible for resting, digestion, and repairing body. Ex. Slows heart rate, constricts pupils

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56
Q

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

A

Network of cells in the pons and medulla that help regulate the level of awareness and alertness in humans through connection between brain and body

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57
Q

Pons Location and Action

A

Above medulla
Regulates arousal and excitement
Serves as a bridge for upper to lower brain/spinal cord

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58
Q

The Limbic System

A

Network of Neurons and glia dedicated to regulating emotions, regulate endocrine activity, and forming emotional memories

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59
Q

What structures does the limbic system include? (In the cortex and the midbrain)

A

Prefrontal cortex, olfactory cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus

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60
Q

What is the purpose of an amygdalectomy?

A

Procedure involving experimental destruction of the amygdala in animals, makes animals docile.

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61
Q

Cingulate gyrus (ventral to the neocortex)

A

Network that becomes more active when we experience unpleasant things (physical pain and exclusion socially)

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62
Q

Hypothalamus functions

A

Regulates hunger responses, sexual behavior, temperature, and aggression

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63
Q

Frontal Lobes and its Function

A

Making decisions and movement.

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64
Q

What is the case of Phineas Gage?

A

Impaled with a rod through the head. Damage to his frontal cortex, and changed his personality

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65
Q

Motor Cortex location and function

A

Towards the back of the head in the frontal lobe
Houses primary neurons that initiate voluntary movement.

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66
Q

What is a Homunculus?

A

Graphical representation of the number of neurons dedicated to a specific body part/function

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67
Q

Why is the frontal lobe considered to be inhibitory?

A

It helps with making decisions and actions, and is responsible for weeding out/inhibiting improper behaviors

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68
Q

Polarization, Depolarization and Hyperpolarization affecting the action potential in a neuron

A

Neutral - Resting, K+ and Cl- are sitting immovable in the axon
Excitatory - Influx of Na+ ions into gated channels, causing action potential
Inhibitory - Influx of Na+ ions triggers efflux of K+ ions, making it more negative and decreasing action potential

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69
Q

vmPFC (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) VS. dlPFC (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) functions

A

Modulate behavior based on fear
VS
Maintain info in our working memory, change our actions to better fit a task

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70
Q

From birth, what are the last regions to undergo the process of myelination (speeds up impulses)?

A

Prefrontal cortex - results in lack of awareness

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71
Q

Lesions in temporal lobe negative effects

A

Because cells/neurons have died in that area it inhibits the ability to form new memories (anterogreade amnesia)

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72
Q

Primary Auditory Cortex location and function

A

Circuits of neurons in TEMPORAL LOBE dedicated to receiving and processing messages from the ears

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73
Q

Wernicke’s area location and effect

A

Located in temporal lobe - people who have injuries to this area have trouble comprehending speech

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74
Q

Temporal lobes and the 3 functions

A

Memory
Hearing
Olfactory senses

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75
Q

EEG purpose

A

Change in electrical potential in brain areas.
Brain waves variations
From neocortex

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76
Q

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) primary purpose

A

Detect changes in blood flow relative to brain activity.
Allowing for scientists to determine which area of the brain has more activity.

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77
Q

PET scan purpose

A

Figure out which neurotransmitters are released (colourful image)

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78
Q

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

A

Method used in combination with MRI scans that allow white matter (axons with myelin) to be seen on the scan.
Helps to determine task performance and which neurons are responsible for an action

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79
Q

CT scan purpose

A

X-rays that pass through body and looks at structure of body

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80
Q

Sensation

A

Elementary parts of the environment that the brain uses to create meaning

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81
Q

Perception

A

Processing of stimuli to create a sensory understanding of the world

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82
Q

Gestalt psychologists and their beliefs

A

Believed we are born with specific, predisposed, ways of organizing info so that it has utility

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83
Q

Figure-ground (helps with organizing info)

A

Tuning out background noises to focus in on one input of information

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84
Q

Gestalt Principles of Organization

A

Principle of Proximity - grouped if close together
Principle of Similarity - similarities will be grouped
Principle of Closure - people perceive whole objects even if pieces are missing
Principle of Good Continuation - continuous lines are perceived even if lines cross one another
Principle of common fate - grouped together if moving together

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85
Q

What percentage of the cortex plays a role in the interpretation of visual info?

A

20%

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86
Q

How many nanometers of light are we able to perceive?

A

400-700 nm

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87
Q

Where are the photosensitive receptor cells located in the eye?

A

Retina

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88
Q

What part of the eye performs about 80% of the focusing of a visual image?

A

Cornea, the outermost part of the eye

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89
Q

Accommodation of the eye

A

Process through which the lens changes shape to bring objects into focus on the retina

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90
Q

Myopia VS Hyperopia

A

See objects more clearly when they are close VS farsightedness

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91
Q

List the order of light hitting structures of the eye

A

Cornea
Pupil
Lens
Vitreous Chamber
Retina

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92
Q

Iris Function

A

Controls diameter and size of pupil, controls amount of light reaching the retina

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93
Q

Optic Nerve location and function

A

Back of eye, down from the fovea.
Translates info from retina and sends info to visual cortex
Blind spot because of optic nerve

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94
Q

Cones

A

Fovea contains these cones.
Perceive color
Provide visual acuity - transmit fine detail when there is MORE LIGHT because connected to ganglion cells

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95
Q

Rods

A

Located in periphery of retina
Sensitive to low light levels
Help with perception of location of object and motion in environment

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96
Q

Length of wavelengths and their associated colours

A

Long- Reds (670 nm) L-cones
Medium - Greens (530 nm) M-cones
Shorter - Blues (450 nm) S -cones

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97
Q

Trichromatic Theory

A

Theory of color vision that proposes that color info is identified by comparing the activation of different cones in the retina

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98
Q

Deuteranopia VS Protanopia (form of colour-blindness)

A

Green cones have red pigment
VS
Red cones have green pigment

99
Q

What are the monocular cues? (two-dimensional)

A

Occlusion - image partially blocking other image resulting in blocked object appearing farther
Relative Height - objects closer to horizon appear farther away
Relative Size - object farther away takes up smaller portion of retina
Perspective Convergence - parallel lines seem to converge in the distance
Familiar Size - judge distance based on knowledge of object’s size
Atmospheric Perspective - distant objects appear hazy and have slight blue tint

100
Q

Range of people’s hearing in hertz

A

Between 20 and 20,000 Hz, but best between 1000-5000 Hz

101
Q

Intensity of sound wave

A

Physical Measurement of loudness of a sound measured in decibels (dB)

102
Q

Describe the process of sound entering the ear

A

Enters through the pinna and filters sound towards the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
- Energy is transferred to 3 smallest bones of body, the ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)
- Stapes is connected to oval window which transfers the vibrations to bony sound process, the cochlea.
- There it is transferred into neural language the brain can understand

103
Q

Give brief descriptions of pinna, tympanic membrane, ossicles, oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane

A
  • External part of ear
  • Eardrum
  • Amplify vibrations from the eardrum and send them to oval window of cochlea
  • In inner ear where auditory hair cells (cilia) are located
  • Tissue inside cochlea where hair cells are located
104
Q

Transduction

A

Process by which external sensations are converted into neural firing in the brain

105
Q

Place Theory

A

Theory of audition that suggests we understand pitch because of LOCATION of firing on the basilar membrane

106
Q

Frequency Theory

A

Theory of audition suggesting that we understand pitch because of RATE of cellular firing on basilar membrane

107
Q

Somatosensory Cortex location and function

A

Parietal lobe where touch and motion are processed

108
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Receptors in the skin that sense different kinds of pressure

109
Q

Merkel receptors VS Meissner Corpuscle

A

Fire continuously as long as skin is in contact with object
VS
Fires when skin FIRST encounters stimulus and when it is removed

110
Q

Ruffini Cylinder VS Pacinian Corpuscle

A

Associated with interpreting stretching of skin
VS
Feels vibration and texture

111
Q

Somatotopic Organization

A

Spatial Organization of touch; two adjacent points on your skin are represented by adjacent points on the somatosensory cortex

112
Q

What parts of the body does the cortex primarily analyze?

A

Info from hands and face

113
Q

Sensory Homunculus

A

Visual depiction of what our bodies would look like if they were built in proportion to their representation on the cortex (hands and face are large)

114
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Receptors in the skin specifically designed to detect changes in temperature (cold fibers increase firing rate with cold objects, and same with hot)

115
Q

Kinesthetic Sense

A

Refers to our sense of where our bodies are in space and how to move the body to accomplish specific tasks.
- Info from receptors are sent to somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe

116
Q

Vestibular Sense

A

Known for sense of balance and posture. Located in the inner ear are the vestibular sacs
- Works closely with kinesthetic sense

117
Q

Semicircular Canals

A

Structures in inner ear that sense changes in acceleration and rotation of head
- Filled with hair cells inside the vestibular sacs converting info about gravity into neural firing

118
Q

Vestibular Sacs

A

Structures in inner ear that respond to cues associated with balance and posture

119
Q

Absolute threshold (stimulus detection)

A

Level of intensity required to create a conscious experience
- Can vary between individuals

120
Q

Signal Detection (individual bias)

A

Some may detect a stimulus even when it is not present. Meaning they have “high hit rates” and experience “false alarms” more frequently

121
Q

Liberal VS Conservative Response Bias (to a stimulus)

A

High hit rate individuals will respond to a stimulus even if it is not present
VS
Higher miss rate individuals tend to say they do not perceive a stimulus even when one was presented

122
Q

Split-brain phenomenon

A

Surgery that cuts connections between left and right brain hemispheres by severing a large band of axons known as the corpus callosum

123
Q

Split-brain surgery purpose

A

Reduce frequency and severity of epileptic seizures

124
Q

Passive Attention

A

Occurs when attentional priorities are set by bottom-up info from the environment Ex. loud noise in a quiet room

125
Q

Active Attention

A

Attentional priorities are set by top-down goals of an individual Ex. searching for something

126
Q

Selective Attention

A

Person attends to some info while ignoring other info
- More salient objects or stimuli stand out more

127
Q

Stimulus Salience

A

Idea that some stimuli in the environment capture attention by virtue of their physical properties

128
Q

Attentional Capture

A

Attention is diverted because of the salience of a stimulus Ex. words appearing in italics stand out more than regular font

129
Q

Dichotic Listening Task (figure-ground)

A

One message is received through one ear while another is received in the opposite ear. They are asked to focus on one stream of info
- Purpose is to see how much info is processed from the ear they aren’t told to focus on

130
Q

What is GSR (galvanic skin response)?

A

Measure of emotional arousal level in the sympathetic nervous system, and is shown through activity of sweat glands

131
Q

Unilateral neglect, location and effect

A

Lesions on the right parietal lobe of the cortex.
Lose awareness of left visual stimuli.
Apply makeup to only half of their face, eat half the food on their plate etc.
Able to report only some details of color or form

132
Q

4 different waves during Sleep cycle

A

Beta - awake and alert
Alpha - Relaxed and awake
Theta - light sleep
Delta - deep sleep (slowest Hz)

133
Q

3 Main Features of Interest in stages of sleep (FAR)

A

Freq. of waves (Hz) - up + down cycles of waves/sec
Amp. - differ between stages of sleep
Regularity of wave - difference in pattern of activity/consistency

134
Q

What are two wave patterns that are observed when you are awake? (BA)

A

Beta Waves - Person is alert and active. Desynchronized waves of because of lots of brain activity Freq. 13-30Hz
Alpha - awake but relaxed. 8-12 Hz. Alpha waves go into theta waves (falling asleep)

135
Q

Why is there a transition from alpha to theta waves?

A

Going into stage 1 sleep where theta waves take over while you are in a light sleep.
- If awoken, you may not know that you were sleeping

136
Q

What two key components help with the transition from Stage 1 into Stage 2 sleep?

A

Sleep spindles: bursts of activity. 2-5x/min during Non-REM sleep. More spindles = higher IQ
K-Complexes: pattern of neural excitation followed by neural inhibition occurring during Stage 2 sleep - Both prepare brain to enter delta wave activity

137
Q

What does SWS consist of?

A

Sleep stages 3-4, delta waves (slow, regular, high amp. waves( (1.5-4 Hz)

138
Q

What stage of sleep and wave pattern will make you feel groggy and confused if you are awoken from it?

A

Slow wave sleep, and delta wave activity

139
Q

Desynchronized beta waves will start to appear on the EEG
- Belongs to which Stage of sleep

A

REM

140
Q

REM sleep antonia

A

Referring to your body becoming paralyzed during REM sleep

141
Q

What happens when you are awoken from REM, how do you feel?

A

Alert and attentive

142
Q

During this stage blood flow in the brain is reduced but the visual association cortex and the prefrontal cortex receive a lot of oxygenated blood - causing visual images/hallucinations

A

REM sleep

143
Q

Conditioned Insomnia

A

Cues that are usually associated with falling sleep, like your bed, instead cause feelings of anxiety surrounding the inability to fall asleep.

144
Q

Hypersomnia

A

Symptom of several conditions and generally refers to excessive need for sleep

145
Q

Sleep apnea and treatment

A

Patient stops breathing during the night. CO2 builds in bloodstream and patient wakes up.
CPAP - pushes pressurized air through airway

146
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Sudden, extreme need to sleep
- Cataplexy occurs, muscle weakness or paralysis during waking hours

147
Q

Hypnagogic VS Hypnopompic Hallucinations

A

Just before falling asleep
VS
Just before waking

148
Q

Circadian Rhythms

A

25 hour biological clocks

149
Q

Zeitgebers

A

Cues from the environment that set the biological clocks (main one is presence or absence of light)

150
Q

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) location and function

A

Directly above the chiasm and sets the body’s circadian clock.
- Sends signals to several regions of the brain, among them the pineal gland. Pineal gland secretes melatonin when there is an absence of light

151
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

Psychoactive substance from the environment, other than food, that influence mood, thoughts, or behavior

152
Q

Glutamate and how alcohol affects production

A

Neurotransmitter that often creates excitatory effects in the nervous system.
- Alcohol inhibits effectiveness, especially in hippocampus (decreased memories of a night out)

153
Q

GABA and how alcohol affects it

A

Neurotransmitter that often creates inhibitory effects in the nervous system creating a relaxed state
- Alcohol increases effectiveness

154
Q

Dopamine

A

Neurotransmitter that has been implicated in the rewarding effects of some drugs Ex. alcohol, cocaine, nicotine

155
Q

Barbiturates and Benzodiazepine

A

Treat anxiety, OCD, and epilepsy
Act on amount of GABA in the brain
- Cause sedation and induce sleep, relaxation

156
Q

Why are benzodiazepine drugs prescribed more than barbiturates?

A

Barbiturates are quite addictive, easy to develop a tolerance and accidentally overdose.

157
Q

Caffeine and benefits

A

Blocks the inhibitory neurotransmitter adenosine.
- Creating increased energy and focus

158
Q

Nicotine

A

Stimulates release of acetylcholine (excitatory) and releases dopamine
- Long-term use of nicotine reduces overall levels of acetylcholine in the brain

159
Q

Cocaine

A

Combat hunger and fatigue, create sense of euphoria
- Binds to and deactivates the proteins that aid in the reuptake of dopamine, prolonging the effects

160
Q

Social (vicarious) learning

A

Learning something by watching others

161
Q

Latent learning

A

We learn something but don’t show it until we have a reason to use our knowledge. Ex. Fuse box when the lights go out

162
Q

3 types that latent learning can be

A

Social, Pavlovian, or Operant

163
Q

What decade did Ivan Pavlov conduct the study about dogs and their digestion of food?

A

1900s

164
Q

What is another name for Pavlovian Conditioning?

A

Classical Conditioning

165
Q

Pavlovian Conditioning

A

Seemingly insignificant event signals and important event; a CS provides info about the presence or absence of a US

166
Q

3 things that can help us determine a stimulus in the environment

A
  1. Detectable
  2. Is measurable
  3. Evokes a response or behavior
167
Q

Innate reflex in Pavlovian conditioning requires what two things

A

US and UR

168
Q

Elicits

A

Descriptor for behavior in Pavlovian or Classical conditioning indicating response to stimulus is involuntary

169
Q

Extinction (classical)

A

Signal occurs without what’s signaled and the conditional response goes away; the CS is presented alone, and the CR decreases

170
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

After extinction and a break without the signal or what’s signaled, the signal occurs alone, and the CR reappears

171
Q

Stimulus Generalization

A

An effect in which an animal notices similarities between objects and responds to the objects as if they were the same

172
Q

Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning

A

Consequences of our behavior matter, we learn based off of past experiences

173
Q

Who identified four contingencies (“if-then” relationships), and what are they?

A

B. F. Skinner
- Positive Reinforcement Ex. Flip a switch turning a light on
- Negative Reinforcement Ex. Taking long route home to avoid scary dog
- Positive Punishment Ex. Checking your email and receiving a complaint
- Negative Punishment Ex. Driving while intoxicated then losing your license

174
Q

Reinforcement VS Punishment

A

INCREASES probability of behavior
VS
DECREASES probability of behavior

175
Q

Positive VS Negative in relation to consequence

A

Behavior is ADDED the consequence occurs
VS
Behavior is REMOVED the consequence does NOT occur

176
Q

Negative Reinforcement and its two forms

A

Escape - Something you want to stop happening, your response makes it stop, and you are more likely to respond similarly in the future
Avoidance - Something you don’t want to happen will happen if you don’t respond, so you respond to prevent it. Your response is more likely under similar conditions in the future Ex. Flu shot to avoid contracting an illness

177
Q

Appetitive Stimulus VS Aversive (noxious) Stimulus

A

Stimulus you work to obtain. or reward. Ex. Good grades
VS
Stimulus you will work to avoid Ex. Loud sound

178
Q

What does positive punishment need to help suppress behavior?

A

Contingency, or repetition of saying no to a bad behavior

179
Q

Reinforcer test

A

Contingency analysis, the test is a way to determine the consequence you selected is a reinforcer and increases the frequency of a behavior

180
Q

Primary Reinforcers

A

Type of stimulus, also known as unconditional reinforcers, in which biologically important consequences make your behavior more likely in the future
-Natural, help maintain life ex. food, water, pain (negative reinforcer)

181
Q

Secondary Reinforcer

A

Type of stimulus known as conditioned reinforcers in which consequences that were paired with primary reinforcers or already-meaningful reinforcers that will make your behavior more likely in the future Ex. “H” on shower nozzle causes hot water to come out

182
Q

Who created Operational Behaviorism, and what is it and what is another name for it?

A

Edward C. Tolman, and is also called Mediational Neobehaviorism
- Unobservable, mental events that characterize behavior

183
Q

Who studied latent learning and what did he discover?

A

Edward C. Tolman, and he discovered that it is a type of learning that has happened but hasn’t had an opportunity to be demonstrated

184
Q

Cognitive Map

A

Assumption that we recreate a mental image of areas in our physical surroundings

185
Q

Who discovered Social learning and what is it?

A

Albert Bandura, and it is a type of learning where we understand what to do by watching others (observational learning)

186
Q

Transferred Association

A

In reference to social learning, in order to copy the behavior of another, the observer must see the model’s behavior and see the model earn a reward for that behavior.

187
Q

Bandura’s theory specifies that observational learning entails 4 phases, what are they?

A

Attentional - observer watches model doing something
Retention - observer remembers what the model did and can imitate that response later
Production - observer copies what the model demonstrated
Motivational - Observer obtains the same outcome as the model for the same response

188
Q

Who created the idea of biological preparedness and what is it?

A

Seligman, and it is the result in which some events serve as better signals or conditional stimuli than others due to evolution Ex. A shock as a US does not associate with looking at a flower as it would looking at a wire fence

189
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

Experiencing an aversive situation you can’t control prevents you from learning to control the other aversive situations

190
Q

Why is “reconstruction” a better metaphor then “search” for memory?

A

We are not just sifting through our minds to find a specific piece of info, we have to reconstruct that info to associate it with the environment or situation at hand.

191
Q

What are immediate memories’ three main properties?

A

Representation, duration, and capacity

192
Q

Immediate memory’s Representation

A

Info a memory system contains. Often, this is described in terms of how the info is represented or “coded”

193
Q

Inner voice

A

Evidence that info in immediate memory can be REPRESENTED verbally

194
Q

Inner eye

A

Mental experience of seeing something using your imagination. Evidence for visual representation in immediate memory

195
Q

Immediate memory - Duration

A

How long a memory system can contain info before it is forgotten.
Indefinite with rehearsal, but without rehearsal is only 3 sec or so

196
Q

Immediate Memory - Capacity

A

How much info can be held in a memory system at any time. Capacity is typically considered to be whatever you can rehearse in roughly 2 sec

197
Q

Memory Span (immediate memory)

A

Number of items that can be kept active in immediate memory at one time

198
Q

Who created the WM model, and what is it?

A

Baddeley and Hitch
Model of immediate memory that emphasizes its role as a system for manipulating and working on info in consciousness

199
Q

Baddeley added what to the WM model?

A

The idea of a phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad

200
Q

Central executive, and who created it

A

Baddeley and Hitch
Directs activities of WM, like phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad, and flow of info between working and LTM

201
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

Process of actively manipulating info in immediate memory to meaningfully connect it to other info already stored in LTM

202
Q

Deep VS Shallow processing

A

Encode new info through making meaningful connections to existing knowledge
VS
Encode info based only on its surface characteristics

203
Q

4 methods of elaboration

A

Imagery - remember a list of words by creating a scene in your head with them
Organization - organize into groups
Distinctiveness - remember something at the exclusion of other similar things Ex. Tea over coffee beverage
Self-Reference - personal memory

204
Q

Massed practice VS Spacing Effect

A

Cramming
VS
Rehearsal over a long period of time

205
Q

Peg-word technique is a mnemonic

A

Relate items in your list to a predetermined rhyme

206
Q

Loci as a mnemonic method

A

A person, places, to-be-remembered info along a well-known pathway, such as the route to school or work.

207
Q

Adaptive memory

A

Subfield of memory research focused on investigating how the brain is designed to learn and remember given evolutionary considerations

208
Q

Where do people store memories when they go through the person-action-object strategy? (It’s a metaphor)

A

Memory Palace

209
Q

What is retrieval practice beneficial for?

A

LTM

210
Q

Encoding Specificity Principle

A

Idea that retrieval cues are only useful as long as they match the original context of how-to-be-remembered info was originally learned Ex. Remember happy memories when you are happy in that moment

211
Q

Explicit VS Implicit Memory

A

Remembering that occurs consciously and WITH intent
VS
Remembering that occurs WITHOUT conscious intent

212
Q

Who created the idea of Commission and Omission?

A

Daniel Schacter

213
Q

3 types of errors of Omission

A

Transience
Absentmindedness
Blocking

214
Q

Memory Decay theory

A

Theory that memories fade away due to passage of time alone

215
Q

Sin of Transience

A

Unable to retrieve info because it is forgotten due to interference of info we have processed in the meantime

216
Q

Retroactive VS Proactive Interference

A

Inability to retrieve OLDER info due to influence of new, similar info
VS
Inability to retrieve NEW info due to influence of older, similar info

217
Q

Sin of Blocking

A

Not enough distinctive cues are available to help us recover a specific memory

218
Q

Errors of Commission, and the 4 types

A

Information can be remembered but pieces are altered or missing
- Misattribution
- Suggestibility
- Bias
- Persistence

219
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

Memories for the details surrounding events that are both surprising and particularly significant

220
Q

Sin of Suggestibility (commission)

A

memories can be altered by the context in which they are remembered to better fit the current context

221
Q

Sin of Bias (commission)

A

Influence of knowledge and beliefs can influence how we remember things

222
Q

Memory Schemas

A

Highly organized knowledge structure that contains many pieces of specific info.
- Useful because you can organize memories in categories

223
Q

Sin of persistence

A

Memories can sometimes be retrieved when they are not wanted

224
Q

Moods VS Emotions

A

Long-lasting, and are not affected by specific object or event
VS
Short-lived states that correspond to specific situations

225
Q

Who created the 3 principles of emotion and what are they?

A

Charles Darwin
- Serviceable habits
-Antithesis
- Direct action of excited nervous system on body

226
Q

First Principle of serviceable habits

A

The way emotions are expresses serves a purpose in non-human animals but not people. Ex. Dogs showing teeth as a warning, but humans show teeth without intention of attack (non-functional response)

227
Q

Principle of antithesis

A

Opposite emotions have opposite bodily expressions.

228
Q

Principle of direct action of excited nervous system on the body

A

Emotions result in perceivable changes in the nervous system. Ex. Red face when we become angry

229
Q

Basic Emotion Theory and who developed it

A

Suggests that distinct emotions and their associated cognitive, physiological, and motor responses unfold over time in a predictable pattern without attention
- Charles Darwin

230
Q

James-Lange theory of emotions

A

People perceive stimulus, express emotion the stimulus evokes, and then identify their emotion

231
Q

Cannon-Bard thalamic theory of emotion

A

People perceive stimulus and then SIMULTANEOUSLY express the emotion and identify the emotion

232
Q

Emotional Contagion

A

When one person observes and then experiences the same emotion as another person

233
Q

Conditioned emotional response procedure

A

Process of linking an emotional response, through classical conditioning, to a neutral stimulus

234
Q

How do animals show outward signs of stress?

A

Distressed vocalization

235
Q

Occasion setters

A

Internal or external stimulus that signals the relationship between a response and an outcome

236
Q

Interoceptive Stimuli VS Exteroceptive Stimuli

A

Type of stimuli from within our bodies to indicate a change, others cannot see, feel, touch etc.
VS
Type of stimuli from outside our bodies that indicates a change, others can see, feel, touch etc.

237
Q

Coolidge Effect

A

An animal has multiple mate-pairings with the same partner, loses interest in that partner, and experiences renewed sexual interest in a new partner

238
Q

Dishabituation

A

When we respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again. When we repeatedly see or experience a stimulus, our response to it grows weaker.

239
Q

Paternal Uncertainty

A

Men cannot directly know whether the child their partner is carrying is theirs or someone else’s if there was male poaching involved

240
Q

Who do women vs. men pay attention to in infidelity?

A

Women pay attention pay attention to the other women, while men pay attention the women that they are in a relationship with when around other men

241
Q

Motivating operations and who created it

A

Jack Michael
Variables extended in time and momentarily change current frequency of behavior related to a specific reinforcer. Ex. turning on fan when too hot
- Food deprivation, becoming too cold, sleep deprivation

242
Q

Establishing VS Abolishing Operations

A

INCREASE the effectiveness of a reinforcer and evoke behavior related to obtaining them Ex. turning fan on when hot
VS
DECREASE effectiveness of reinforcers and decrease behavior related to obtaining them Ex. Having a heater on even though you are already warm

243
Q

What does motivating operations momentarily affect?

A

Behavior and consequences

244
Q

Achievement Motivation

A

All people have an internal desire or drive to achieve excellence at something, which is reflected in their performance on tasks in that content area