Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Naturalistic Observation
A
Observation as it happens, without manipulation or attempt to control the environment
2
Q
What are field experiments?
A
Experiment done outside in the real world where the researcher manipulates and controls the conditions of the behavior under observation
3
Q
Observation are usually captured in two ways, what are they?
In order to get clear results
A
Qualitatively - collect opinions, notes, or general observations
Quantitatively - any attempt to measure or count specific behaviors
4
Q
Hawthorne Effect, and who created the idea?
A
Animals and people reactively change their behavior once they become aware they are being observed. Chiesa and Hobbs
5
Q
Case Study
A
In-depth analysis of a unique circumstance or individual
6
Q
What is Henry Molaison’s story?
A
Case study - aggressive seizures after falling off bike, surgeons destroy tissue in his brain to stop seizures but cause him to suffer from anterograde amnesia. Helped with the study of how the hippocampus forms memories.
7
Q
Procedural Memories
A
Contents pertain to how something is done, such as motor skills for riding a bike
8
Q
What source of obtaining data would you use when studying larger patterns of behavior?
A
Surveys
9
Q
Sampling Error
A
Sample deviating from a true representation of a population. Cannot be applied back to the entire population
10
Q
Response Bias
A
Tendency for people to answer the question in a way that they feel they are EXPECTED to answer
11
Q
Acquiescent Response Bias
A
Tendency for participants to agree or respond “yes” to all questions regardless of their actual opinions
12
Q
Socially Desirable Bias
A
Participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as acceptable by others
13
Q
Illusory Superiority
A
Tendency to describe our own behavior as better than average.
14
Q
Volunteer Bias
A
Bias whereby only a motivated fraction of a population respond to a survey or participate in research
15
Q
Vulnerable Populations
A
Any group of individuals who may not be able to provide free and informed consent to participate in research
16
Q
What two criteria must vulnerable populations have?
A
Decisional Impairment - diminished capacity to provide informed consent ex. children, mentally disabled
Situational Vulnerability - freedom of choice is compromised as a result of undue influence from another source ex. military personnel, prisoners
17
Q
In case of decisional impairment, consent for research participation requires two types of consent:
A
Parent or guardian provide informed consent and participant muse provide assent (affirmative permission to take part in the study)
18
Q
Correlation Coefficient
A
Numerical representation of the strength of the relationship between variables (value ranges from -1 to +1)
-Positive and negative signs mean the direction of relationship. Whereas the value, or number, is the strength.
-Cannot go past value of 1 (-/+)
19
Q
Extraneous or Confounding Variable
A
Other variables that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, thereby influencing the correlation coefficient (or outcome of the research)
20
Q
What is the difference between correlation and causation?
A
Correlation - relationship between two variables that can help make predications about behavior and the possible causation
Causation - the notion that one variable directly affects another variable
21
Q
Independent Variable (IV)
A
Variable that experiment manipulates. IV always comes first, before any measurement is taken
22
Q
Dependent Variable (DV)
A
Variable experimenter counts or measures. The IV is the CAUSE of the change and the dependent variable is the EFFECT of that change
23
Q
Stratified Random Sampling
A
Taking a population and dividing into subgroups, then randomly taking samples in proportion to the population of interest.
24
Q
Internal VS. External Validity (Experiments)
A
Control factors that may bias the outcome of the experiment (controlling the IV).
VS
Do the results of the experiment apply in the real world?
25
Generalization
External validity of how results from an experiment can apply to other settings, other people, and other time periods
26
Standard Deviation (SD)
Common use of measuring variability. Relates to the mean (sum of all values) of data
27
Neurons AND Glial Cells
Cells transmitting electrical pulses for communication AND 7 different kinds of helper cells that assist neurons in their role as the brain's communicators, and provide structural support
28
What are dendrites?
Extensions of cell body membrane that branch out to communicate with other neurons
29
Neurotransmitter action
They are chemicals released from the end of an axon that acts as messages to other neurons and body parts. These chemicals typically bind to receptors on the ends of dendrites
30
Receptors located on dendrites
Proteins that are embedded in the cell body membrane and are built to receive chemical messages from neurotransmitters
31
How does the sharing of messages between neurons happen?
Burst of electrical energy (action potential) in the neuron that signals it to release a neurotransmitter
32
What are the +/- electrically charged particles in our bodies called?
Ions - they create electricity
33
What are the ions involved with the process of action potential?
Na+, Cl-, and K+
34
What are the charges associated with polarized and depolarized cells?
Polarized - negative charge of around - 70 mV, cell is at rest and will not release neurotransmitters
Depolarization - positive and moving away from the state of being polarized. More action potential this way
35
How is the problem solved when more Na+ channels fill up?
More gated channels open for a rush of Na+ (propagation)
36
Propagation
Process by which electrical impulses get sent to the end of a neuron
37
What ions are required to produce the action potential VS maintain resting potential?
AP: Na+ RUSHING IN depolarizes the neuron
RP: K+ RUSHING OUT polarizes the neuron (resetting it)
38
Excitatory VS Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Causes a neuron to move closer to activation (more positive)
VS
Causes the charge inside a neuron to move away from activation (more negative)
39
True or False: A neuron may receive inputs from both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters
TRUE
40
What is the reference of a lock and key in neuronal membranes?
The lock is like a protein receptor binding, and a key is like a neurotransmitter in binding. Made to fit into a specially shaped binding site (lock) on the receptor (door)
41
Presynaptic neuron
Neuron that releases the neurotransmitter from its axon terminal
42
Postsynaptic neuron
Other side of the synapse. Neuron side that contains receptors (on dendrites) ready to bind neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron
43
Where are neurotransmitters created on the neuron?
Presynaptic Neuron
44
Is GABA an inhibitory or excitatory receptor?
Inhibitory - binds with receptor to open a chloride channel, which is negative, more likely to be inactivated
45
What is a description of a nerve?
Large bundle of axons from many neurons bundled into a tube that extends a large distance
46
What are axons?
Long, narrow projection from the cell body
47
Efferents VS Afferents
Axons carrying signals AWAY from the CNS
VS
Axons that carry signals TO the CNS
48
Neuroplasticity
Ability of neurons and networks to change. Gain and lose neurons, grow new dendrites, and change amount of receptors and neurotransmitters
49
Neocortex (think CEO of a company)
Outer part of brain with bumps (gyri) and valleys (sulci), responsible for all the high-level processing of info
50
Medulla (worksite and onsite managers of corporation)
Part of brain closest to your spinal cord that helps regulate basic life functions like breathing and heart rate
51
Peripheral nervous system (is below brain and connects to spinal cord) split into two divisions, what are they?
Somatic - controls the movement of head, torso, and limbs. Control and communicate with skeletal muscles
Autonomic (automatic) - part of nervous system that controls the more automatic functions of the body
52
Nerves leaving the spinal cord or brain are shared and go down into what?
Peripheral Nervous System
53
The autonomic system is further divided into what two divisions?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
54
Sympathetic Nervous System
Division of autonomic nervous system that is responsible for things we do that require excitement. Ex. rapid heartbeat, high blood temp., dilates pupil
55
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Division of autonomic nervous system that is responsible for resting, digestion, and repairing body. Ex. Slows heart rate, constricts pupils
56
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Network of cells in the pons and medulla that help regulate the level of awareness and alertness in humans through connection between brain and body
57
Pons Location and Action
Above medulla
Regulates arousal and excitement
Serves as a bridge for upper to lower brain/spinal cord
58
The Limbic System
Network of Neurons and glia dedicated to regulating emotions, regulate endocrine activity, and forming emotional memories
59
What structures does the limbic system include? (In the cortex and the midbrain)
Prefrontal cortex, olfactory cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus
60
What is the purpose of an amygdalectomy?
Procedure involving experimental destruction of the amygdala in animals, makes animals docile.
61
Cingulate gyrus (ventral to the neocortex)
Network that becomes more active when we experience unpleasant things (physical pain and exclusion socially)
62
Hypothalamus functions
Regulates hunger responses, sexual behavior, temperature, and aggression
63
Frontal Lobes and its Function
Making decisions and movement.
64
What is the case of Phineas Gage?
Impaled with a rod through the head. Damage to his frontal cortex, and changed his personality
65
Motor Cortex location and function
Towards the back of the head in the frontal lobe
Houses primary neurons that initiate voluntary movement.
66
What is a Homunculus?
Graphical representation of the number of neurons dedicated to a specific body part/function
67
Why is the frontal lobe considered to be inhibitory?
It helps with making decisions and actions, and is responsible for weeding out/inhibiting improper behaviors
68
Polarization, Depolarization and Hyperpolarization affecting the action potential in a neuron
Neutral - Resting, K+ and Cl- are sitting immovable in the axon
Excitatory - Influx of Na+ ions into gated channels, causing action potential
Inhibitory - Influx of Na+ ions triggers efflux of K+ ions, making it more negative and decreasing action potential
69
vmPFC (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) VS. dlPFC (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) functions
Modulate behavior based on fear
VS
Maintain info in our working memory, change our actions to better fit a task
70
From birth, what are the last regions to undergo the process of myelination (speeds up impulses)?
Prefrontal cortex - results in lack of awareness
71
Lesions in temporal lobe negative effects
Because cells/neurons have died in that area it inhibits the ability to form new memories (anterogreade amnesia)
72
Primary Auditory Cortex location and function
Circuits of neurons in TEMPORAL LOBE dedicated to receiving and processing messages from the ears
73
Wernicke's area location and effect
Located in temporal lobe - people who have injuries to this area have trouble comprehending speech
74
Temporal lobes and the 3 functions
Memory
Hearing
Olfactory senses
75
EEG purpose
Change in electrical potential in brain areas.
Brain waves variations
From neocortex
76
fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) primary purpose
Detect changes in blood flow relative to brain activity.
Allowing for scientists to determine which area of the brain has more activity.
77
PET scan purpose
Figure out which neurotransmitters are released (colourful image)
78
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
Method used in combination with MRI scans that allow white matter (axons with myelin) to be seen on the scan.
Helps to determine task performance and which neurons are responsible for an action
79
CT scan purpose
X-rays that pass through body and looks at structure of body
80
Sensation
Elementary parts of the environment that the brain uses to create meaning
81
Perception
Processing of stimuli to create a sensory understanding of the world
82
Gestalt psychologists and their beliefs
Believed we are born with specific, predisposed, ways of organizing info so that it has utility
83
Figure-ground (helps with organizing info)
Tuning out background noises to focus in on one input of information
84
Gestalt Principles of Organization
Principle of Proximity - grouped if close together
Principle of Similarity - similarities will be grouped
Principle of Closure - people perceive whole objects even if pieces are missing
Principle of Good Continuation - continuous lines are perceived even if lines cross one another
Principle of common fate - grouped together if moving together
85
What percentage of the cortex plays a role in the interpretation of visual info?
20%
86
How many nanometers of light are we able to perceive?
400-700 nm
87
Where are the photosensitive receptor cells located in the eye?
Retina
88
What part of the eye performs about 80% of the focusing of a visual image?
Cornea, the outermost part of the eye
89
Accommodation of the eye
Process through which the lens changes shape to bring objects into focus on the retina
90
Myopia VS Hyperopia
See objects more clearly when they are close VS farsightedness
91
List the order of light hitting structures of the eye
Cornea
Pupil
Lens
Vitreous Chamber
Retina
92
Iris Function
Controls diameter and size of pupil, controls amount of light reaching the retina
93
Optic Nerve location and function
Back of eye, down from the fovea.
Translates info from retina and sends info to visual cortex
Blind spot because of optic nerve
94
Cones
Fovea contains these cones.
Perceive color
Provide visual acuity - transmit fine detail when there is MORE LIGHT because connected to ganglion cells
95
Rods
Located in periphery of retina
Sensitive to low light levels
Help with perception of location of object and motion in environment
96
Length of wavelengths and their associated colours
Long- Reds (670 nm) L-cones
Medium - Greens (530 nm) M-cones
Shorter - Blues (450 nm) S -cones
97
Trichromatic Theory
Theory of color vision that proposes that color info is identified by comparing the activation of different cones in the retina
98
Deuteranopia VS Protanopia (form of colour-blindness)
Green cones have red pigment
VS
Red cones have green pigment
99
What are the monocular cues? (two-dimensional)
Occlusion - image partially blocking other image resulting in blocked object appearing farther
Relative Height - objects closer to horizon appear farther away
Relative Size - object farther away takes up smaller portion of retina
Perspective Convergence - parallel lines seem to converge in the distance
Familiar Size - judge distance based on knowledge of object's size
Atmospheric Perspective - distant objects appear hazy and have slight blue tint
100
Range of people's hearing in hertz
Between 20 and 20,000 Hz, but best between 1000-5000 Hz
101
Intensity of sound wave
Physical Measurement of loudness of a sound measured in decibels (dB)
102
Describe the process of sound entering the ear
Enters through the pinna and filters sound towards the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
- Energy is transferred to 3 smallest bones of body, the ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes)
- Stapes is connected to oval window which transfers the vibrations to bony sound process, the cochlea.
- There it is transferred into neural language the brain can understand
103
Give brief descriptions of pinna, tympanic membrane, ossicles, oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane
- External part of ear
- Eardrum
- Amplify vibrations from the eardrum and send them to oval window of cochlea
- In inner ear where auditory hair cells (cilia) are located
- Tissue inside cochlea where hair cells are located
104
Transduction
Process by which external sensations are converted into neural firing in the brain
105
Place Theory
Theory of audition that suggests we understand pitch because of LOCATION of firing on the basilar membrane
106
Frequency Theory
Theory of audition suggesting that we understand pitch because of RATE of cellular firing on basilar membrane
107
Somatosensory Cortex location and function
Parietal lobe where touch and motion are processed
108
Mechanoreceptors
Receptors in the skin that sense different kinds of pressure
109
Merkel receptors VS Meissner Corpuscle
Fire continuously as long as skin is in contact with object
VS
Fires when skin FIRST encounters stimulus and when it is removed
110
Ruffini Cylinder VS Pacinian Corpuscle
Associated with interpreting stretching of skin
VS
Feels vibration and texture
111
Somatotopic Organization
Spatial Organization of touch; two adjacent points on your skin are represented by adjacent points on the somatosensory cortex
112
What parts of the body does the cortex primarily analyze?
Info from hands and face
113
Sensory Homunculus
Visual depiction of what our bodies would look like if they were built in proportion to their representation on the cortex (hands and face are large)
114
Thermoreceptors
Receptors in the skin specifically designed to detect changes in temperature (cold fibers increase firing rate with cold objects, and same with hot)
115
Kinesthetic Sense
Refers to our sense of where our bodies are in space and how to move the body to accomplish specific tasks.
- Info from receptors are sent to somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe
116
Vestibular Sense
Known for sense of balance and posture. Located in the inner ear are the vestibular sacs
- Works closely with kinesthetic sense
117
Semicircular Canals
Structures in inner ear that sense changes in acceleration and rotation of head
- Filled with hair cells inside the vestibular sacs converting info about gravity into neural firing
118
Vestibular Sacs
Structures in inner ear that respond to cues associated with balance and posture
119
Absolute threshold (stimulus detection)
Level of intensity required to create a conscious experience
- Can vary between individuals
120
Signal Detection (individual bias)
Some may detect a stimulus even when it is not present. Meaning they have "high hit rates" and experience "false alarms" more frequently
121
Liberal VS Conservative Response Bias (to a stimulus)
High hit rate individuals will respond to a stimulus even if it is not present
VS
Higher miss rate individuals tend to say they do not perceive a stimulus even when one was presented
122
Split-brain phenomenon
Surgery that cuts connections between left and right brain hemispheres by severing a large band of axons known as the corpus callosum
123
Split-brain surgery purpose
Reduce frequency and severity of epileptic seizures
124
Passive Attention
Occurs when attentional priorities are set by bottom-up info from the environment Ex. loud noise in a quiet room
125
Active Attention
Attentional priorities are set by top-down goals of an individual Ex. searching for something
126
Selective Attention
Person attends to some info while ignoring other info
- More salient objects or stimuli stand out more
127
Stimulus Salience
Idea that some stimuli in the environment capture attention by virtue of their physical properties
128
Attentional Capture
Attention is diverted because of the salience of a stimulus Ex. words appearing in italics stand out more than regular font
129
Dichotic Listening Task (figure-ground)
One message is received through one ear while another is received in the opposite ear. They are asked to focus on one stream of info
- Purpose is to see how much info is processed from the ear they aren't told to focus on
130
What is GSR (galvanic skin response)?
Measure of emotional arousal level in the sympathetic nervous system, and is shown through activity of sweat glands
131
Unilateral neglect, location and effect
Lesions on the right parietal lobe of the cortex.
Lose awareness of left visual stimuli.
Apply makeup to only half of their face, eat half the food on their plate etc.
Able to report only some details of color or form
132
4 different waves during Sleep cycle
Beta - awake and alert
Alpha - Relaxed and awake
Theta - light sleep
Delta - deep sleep (slowest Hz)
133
3 Main Features of Interest in stages of sleep (FAR)
Freq. of waves (Hz) - up + down cycles of waves/sec
Amp. - differ between stages of sleep
Regularity of wave - difference in pattern of activity/consistency
134
What are two wave patterns that are observed when you are awake? (BA)
Beta Waves - Person is alert and active. Desynchronized waves of because of lots of brain activity Freq. 13-30Hz
Alpha - awake but relaxed. 8-12 Hz. Alpha waves go into theta waves (falling asleep)
135
Why is there a transition from alpha to theta waves?
Going into stage 1 sleep where theta waves take over while you are in a light sleep.
- If awoken, you may not know that you were sleeping
136
What two key components help with the transition from Stage 1 into Stage 2 sleep?
Sleep spindles: bursts of activity. 2-5x/min during Non-REM sleep. More spindles = higher IQ
K-Complexes: pattern of neural excitation followed by neural inhibition occurring during Stage 2 sleep - Both prepare brain to enter delta wave activity
137
What does SWS consist of?
Sleep stages 3-4, delta waves (slow, regular, high amp. waves( (1.5-4 Hz)
138
What stage of sleep and wave pattern will make you feel groggy and confused if you are awoken from it?
Slow wave sleep, and delta wave activity
139
Desynchronized beta waves will start to appear on the EEG
- Belongs to which Stage of sleep
REM
140
REM sleep antonia
Referring to your body becoming paralyzed during REM sleep
141
What happens when you are awoken from REM, how do you feel?
Alert and attentive
142
During this stage blood flow in the brain is reduced but the visual association cortex and the prefrontal cortex receive a lot of oxygenated blood - causing visual images/hallucinations
REM sleep
143
Conditioned Insomnia
Cues that are usually associated with falling sleep, like your bed, instead cause feelings of anxiety surrounding the inability to fall asleep.
144
Hypersomnia
Symptom of several conditions and generally refers to excessive need for sleep
145
Sleep apnea and treatment
Patient stops breathing during the night. CO2 builds in bloodstream and patient wakes up.
CPAP - pushes pressurized air through airway
146
Narcolepsy
Sudden, extreme need to sleep
- Cataplexy occurs, muscle weakness or paralysis during waking hours
147
Hypnagogic VS Hypnopompic Hallucinations
Just before falling asleep
VS
Just before waking
148
Circadian Rhythms
25 hour biological clocks
149
Zeitgebers
Cues from the environment that set the biological clocks (main one is presence or absence of light)
150
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) location and function
Directly above the chiasm and sets the body's circadian clock.
- Sends signals to several regions of the brain, among them the pineal gland. Pineal gland secretes melatonin when there is an absence of light
151
Psychoactive drugs
Psychoactive substance from the environment, other than food, that influence mood, thoughts, or behavior
152
Glutamate and how alcohol affects production
Neurotransmitter that often creates excitatory effects in the nervous system.
- Alcohol inhibits effectiveness, especially in hippocampus (decreased memories of a night out)
153
GABA and how alcohol affects it
Neurotransmitter that often creates inhibitory effects in the nervous system creating a relaxed state
- Alcohol increases effectiveness
154
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter that has been implicated in the rewarding effects of some drugs Ex. alcohol, cocaine, nicotine
155
Barbiturates and Benzodiazepine
Treat anxiety, OCD, and epilepsy
Act on amount of GABA in the brain
- Cause sedation and induce sleep, relaxation
156
Why are benzodiazepine drugs prescribed more than barbiturates?
Barbiturates are quite addictive, easy to develop a tolerance and accidentally overdose.
157
Caffeine and benefits
Blocks the inhibitory neurotransmitter adenosine.
- Creating increased energy and focus
158
Nicotine
Stimulates release of acetylcholine (excitatory) and releases dopamine
- Long-term use of nicotine reduces overall levels of acetylcholine in the brain
159
Cocaine
Combat hunger and fatigue, create sense of euphoria
- Binds to and deactivates the proteins that aid in the reuptake of dopamine, prolonging the effects
160
Social (vicarious) learning
Learning something by watching others
161
Latent learning
We learn something but don't show it until we have a reason to use our knowledge. Ex. Fuse box when the lights go out
162
3 types that latent learning can be
Social, Pavlovian, or Operant
163
What decade did Ivan Pavlov conduct the study about dogs and their digestion of food?
1900s
164
What is another name for Pavlovian Conditioning?
Classical Conditioning
165
Pavlovian Conditioning
Seemingly insignificant event signals and important event; a CS provides info about the presence or absence of a US
166
3 things that can help us determine a stimulus in the environment
1. Detectable
2. Is measurable
3. Evokes a response or behavior
167
Innate reflex in Pavlovian conditioning requires what two things
US and UR
168
Elicits
Descriptor for behavior in Pavlovian or Classical conditioning indicating response to stimulus is involuntary
169
Extinction (classical)
Signal occurs without what's signaled and the conditional response goes away; the CS is presented alone, and the CR decreases
170
Spontaneous Recovery
After extinction and a break without the signal or what's signaled, the signal occurs alone, and the CR reappears
171
Stimulus Generalization
An effect in which an animal notices similarities between objects and responds to the objects as if they were the same
172
Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
Consequences of our behavior matter, we learn based off of past experiences
173
Who identified four contingencies ("if-then" relationships), and what are they?
B. F. Skinner
- Positive Reinforcement Ex. Flip a switch turning a light on
- Negative Reinforcement Ex. Taking long route home to avoid scary dog
- Positive Punishment Ex. Checking your email and receiving a complaint
- Negative Punishment Ex. Driving while intoxicated then losing your license
174
Reinforcement VS Punishment
INCREASES probability of behavior
VS
DECREASES probability of behavior
175
Positive VS Negative in relation to consequence
Behavior is ADDED the consequence occurs
VS
Behavior is REMOVED the consequence does NOT occur
176
Negative Reinforcement and its two forms
Escape - Something you want to stop happening, your response makes it stop, and you are more likely to respond similarly in the future
Avoidance - Something you don't want to happen will happen if you don't respond, so you respond to prevent it. Your response is more likely under similar conditions in the future Ex. Flu shot to avoid contracting an illness
177
Appetitive Stimulus VS Aversive (noxious) Stimulus
Stimulus you work to obtain. or reward. Ex. Good grades
VS
Stimulus you will work to avoid Ex. Loud sound
178
What does positive punishment need to help suppress behavior?
Contingency, or repetition of saying no to a bad behavior
179
Reinforcer test
Contingency analysis, the test is a way to determine the consequence you selected is a reinforcer and increases the frequency of a behavior
180
Primary Reinforcers
Type of stimulus, also known as unconditional reinforcers, in which biologically important consequences make your behavior more likely in the future
-Natural, help maintain life ex. food, water, pain (negative reinforcer)
181
Secondary Reinforcer
Type of stimulus known as conditioned reinforcers in which consequences that were paired with primary reinforcers or already-meaningful reinforcers that will make your behavior more likely in the future Ex. "H" on shower nozzle causes hot water to come out
182
Who created Operational Behaviorism, and what is it and what is another name for it?
Edward C. Tolman, and is also called Mediational Neobehaviorism
- Unobservable, mental events that characterize behavior
183
Who studied latent learning and what did he discover?
Edward C. Tolman, and he discovered that it is a type of learning that has happened but hasn't had an opportunity to be demonstrated
184
Cognitive Map
Assumption that we recreate a mental image of areas in our physical surroundings
185
Who discovered Social learning and what is it?
Albert Bandura, and it is a type of learning where we understand what to do by watching others (observational learning)
186
Transferred Association
In reference to social learning, in order to copy the behavior of another, the observer must see the model's behavior and see the model earn a reward for that behavior.
187
Bandura's theory specifies that observational learning entails 4 phases, what are they?
Attentional - observer watches model doing something
Retention - observer remembers what the model did and can imitate that response later
Production - observer copies what the model demonstrated
Motivational - Observer obtains the same outcome as the model for the same response
188
Who created the idea of biological preparedness and what is it?
Seligman, and it is the result in which some events serve as better signals or conditional stimuli than others due to evolution Ex. A shock as a US does not associate with looking at a flower as it would looking at a wire fence
189
Learned Helplessness
Experiencing an aversive situation you can't control prevents you from learning to control the other aversive situations
190
Why is "reconstruction" a better metaphor then "search" for memory?
We are not just sifting through our minds to find a specific piece of info, we have to reconstruct that info to associate it with the environment or situation at hand.
191
What are immediate memories' three main properties?
Representation, duration, and capacity
192
Immediate memory's Representation
Info a memory system contains. Often, this is described in terms of how the info is represented or "coded"
193
Inner voice
Evidence that info in immediate memory can be REPRESENTED verbally
194
Inner eye
Mental experience of seeing something using your imagination. Evidence for visual representation in immediate memory
195
Immediate memory - Duration
How long a memory system can contain info before it is forgotten.
Indefinite with rehearsal, but without rehearsal is only 3 sec or so
196
Immediate Memory - Capacity
How much info can be held in a memory system at any time. Capacity is typically considered to be whatever you can rehearse in roughly 2 sec
197
Memory Span (immediate memory)
Number of items that can be kept active in immediate memory at one time
198
Who created the WM model, and what is it?
Baddeley and Hitch
Model of immediate memory that emphasizes its role as a system for manipulating and working on info in consciousness
199
Baddeley added what to the WM model?
The idea of a phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad
200
Central executive, and who created it
Baddeley and Hitch
Directs activities of WM, like phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad, and flow of info between working and LTM
201
Elaborative Rehearsal
Process of actively manipulating info in immediate memory to meaningfully connect it to other info already stored in LTM
202
Deep VS Shallow processing
Encode new info through making meaningful connections to existing knowledge
VS
Encode info based only on its surface characteristics
203
4 methods of elaboration
Imagery - remember a list of words by creating a scene in your head with them
Organization - organize into groups
Distinctiveness - remember something at the exclusion of other similar things Ex. Tea over coffee beverage
Self-Reference - personal memory
204
Massed practice VS Spacing Effect
Cramming
VS
Rehearsal over a long period of time
205
Peg-word technique is a mnemonic
Relate items in your list to a predetermined rhyme
206
Loci as a mnemonic method
A person, places, to-be-remembered info along a well-known pathway, such as the route to school or work.
207
Adaptive memory
Subfield of memory research focused on investigating how the brain is designed to learn and remember given evolutionary considerations
208
Where do people store memories when they go through the person-action-object strategy? (It's a metaphor)
Memory Palace
209
What is retrieval practice beneficial for?
LTM
210
Encoding Specificity Principle
Idea that retrieval cues are only useful as long as they match the original context of how-to-be-remembered info was originally learned Ex. Remember happy memories when you are happy in that moment
211
Explicit VS Implicit Memory
Remembering that occurs consciously and WITH intent
VS
Remembering that occurs WITHOUT conscious intent
212
Who created the idea of Commission and Omission?
Daniel Schacter
213
3 types of errors of Omission
Transience
Absentmindedness
Blocking
214
Memory Decay theory
Theory that memories fade away due to passage of time alone
215
Sin of Transience
Unable to retrieve info because it is forgotten due to interference of info we have processed in the meantime
216
Retroactive VS Proactive Interference
Inability to retrieve OLDER info due to influence of new, similar info
VS
Inability to retrieve NEW info due to influence of older, similar info
217
Sin of Blocking
Not enough distinctive cues are available to help us recover a specific memory
218
Errors of Commission, and the 4 types
Information can be remembered but pieces are altered or missing
- Misattribution
- Suggestibility
- Bias
- Persistence
219
Flashbulb memories
Memories for the details surrounding events that are both surprising and particularly significant
220
Sin of Suggestibility (commission)
memories can be altered by the context in which they are remembered to better fit the current context
221
Sin of Bias (commission)
Influence of knowledge and beliefs can influence how we remember things
222
Memory Schemas
Highly organized knowledge structure that contains many pieces of specific info.
- Useful because you can organize memories in categories
223
Sin of persistence
Memories can sometimes be retrieved when they are not wanted
224
Moods VS Emotions
Long-lasting, and are not affected by specific object or event
VS
Short-lived states that correspond to specific situations
225
Who created the 3 principles of emotion and what are they?
Charles Darwin
- Serviceable habits
-Antithesis
- Direct action of excited nervous system on body
226
First Principle of serviceable habits
The way emotions are expresses serves a purpose in non-human animals but not people. Ex. Dogs showing teeth as a warning, but humans show teeth without intention of attack (non-functional response)
227
Principle of antithesis
Opposite emotions have opposite bodily expressions.
228
Principle of direct action of excited nervous system on the body
Emotions result in perceivable changes in the nervous system. Ex. Red face when we become angry
229
Basic Emotion Theory and who developed it
Suggests that distinct emotions and their associated cognitive, physiological, and motor responses unfold over time in a predictable pattern without attention
- Charles Darwin
230
James-Lange theory of emotions
People perceive stimulus, express emotion the stimulus evokes, and then identify their emotion
231
Cannon-Bard thalamic theory of emotion
People perceive stimulus and then SIMULTANEOUSLY express the emotion and identify the emotion
232
Emotional Contagion
When one person observes and then experiences the same emotion as another person
233
Conditioned emotional response procedure
Process of linking an emotional response, through classical conditioning, to a neutral stimulus
234
How do animals show outward signs of stress?
Distressed vocalization
235
Occasion setters
Internal or external stimulus that signals the relationship between a response and an outcome
236
Interoceptive Stimuli VS Exteroceptive Stimuli
Type of stimuli from within our bodies to indicate a change, others cannot see, feel, touch etc.
VS
Type of stimuli from outside our bodies that indicates a change, others can see, feel, touch etc.
237
Coolidge Effect
An animal has multiple mate-pairings with the same partner, loses interest in that partner, and experiences renewed sexual interest in a new partner
238
Dishabituation
When we respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again. When we repeatedly see or experience a stimulus, our response to it grows weaker.
239
Paternal Uncertainty
Men cannot directly know whether the child their partner is carrying is theirs or someone else's if there was male poaching involved
240
Who do women vs. men pay attention to in infidelity?
Women pay attention pay attention to the other women, while men pay attention the women that they are in a relationship with when around other men
241
Motivating operations and who created it
Jack Michael
Variables extended in time and momentarily change current frequency of behavior related to a specific reinforcer. Ex. turning on fan when too hot
- Food deprivation, becoming too cold, sleep deprivation
242
Establishing VS Abolishing Operations
INCREASE the effectiveness of a reinforcer and evoke behavior related to obtaining them Ex. turning fan on when hot
VS
DECREASE effectiveness of reinforcers and decrease behavior related to obtaining them Ex. Having a heater on even though you are already warm
243
What does motivating operations momentarily affect?
Behavior and consequences
244
Achievement Motivation
All people have an internal desire or drive to achieve excellence at something, which is reflected in their performance on tasks in that content area
