Final Exam Flashcards
Naturalistic Observation
Observation as it happens, without manipulation or attempt to control the environment
What are field experiments?
Experiment done outside in the real world where the researcher manipulates and controls the conditions of the behavior under observation
Observation are usually captured in two ways, what are they?
In order to get clear results
Qualitatively - collect opinions, notes, or general observations
Quantitatively - any attempt to measure or count specific behaviors
Hawthorne Effect, and who created the idea?
Animals and people reactively change their behavior once they become aware they are being observed. Chiesa and Hobbs
Case Study
In-depth analysis of a unique circumstance or individual
What is Henry Molaison’s story?
Case study - aggressive seizures after falling off bike, surgeons destroy tissue in his brain to stop seizures but cause him to suffer from anterograde amnesia. Helped with the study of how the hippocampus forms memories.
Procedural Memories
Contents pertain to how something is done, such as motor skills for riding a bike
What source of obtaining data would you use when studying larger patterns of behavior?
Surveys
Sampling Error
Sample deviating from a true representation of a population. Cannot be applied back to the entire population
Response Bias
Tendency for people to answer the question in a way that they feel they are EXPECTED to answer
Acquiescent Response Bias
Tendency for participants to agree or respond “yes” to all questions regardless of their actual opinions
Socially Desirable Bias
Participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as acceptable by others
Illusory Superiority
Tendency to describe our own behavior as better than average.
Volunteer Bias
Bias whereby only a motivated fraction of a population respond to a survey or participate in research
Vulnerable Populations
Any group of individuals who may not be able to provide free and informed consent to participate in research
What two criteria must vulnerable populations have?
Decisional Impairment - diminished capacity to provide informed consent ex. children, mentally disabled
Situational Vulnerability - freedom of choice is compromised as a result of undue influence from another source ex. military personnel, prisoners
In case of decisional impairment, consent for research participation requires two types of consent:
Parent or guardian provide informed consent and participant muse provide assent (affirmative permission to take part in the study)
Correlation Coefficient
Numerical representation of the strength of the relationship between variables (value ranges from -1 to +1)
-Positive and negative signs mean the direction of relationship. Whereas the value, or number, is the strength.
-Cannot go past value of 1 (-/+)
Extraneous or Confounding Variable
Other variables that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, thereby influencing the correlation coefficient (or outcome of the research)
What is the difference between correlation and causation?
Correlation - relationship between two variables that can help make predications about behavior and the possible causation
Causation - the notion that one variable directly affects another variable
Independent Variable (IV)
Variable that experiment manipulates. IV always comes first, before any measurement is taken
Dependent Variable (DV)
Variable experimenter counts or measures. The IV is the CAUSE of the change and the dependent variable is the EFFECT of that change
Stratified Random Sampling
Taking a population and dividing into subgroups, then randomly taking samples in proportion to the population of interest.
Internal VS. External Validity (Experiments)
Control factors that may bias the outcome of the experiment (controlling the IV).
VS
Do the results of the experiment apply in the real world?
Generalization
External validity of how results from an experiment can apply to other settings, other people, and other time periods
Standard Deviation (SD)
Common use of measuring variability. Relates to the mean (sum of all values) of data
Neurons AND Glial Cells
Cells transmitting electrical pulses for communication AND 7 different kinds of helper cells that assist neurons in their role as the brain’s communicators, and provide structural support
What are dendrites?
Extensions of cell body membrane that branch out to communicate with other neurons
Neurotransmitter action
They are chemicals released from the end of an axon that acts as messages to other neurons and body parts. These chemicals typically bind to receptors on the ends of dendrites
Receptors located on dendrites
Proteins that are embedded in the cell body membrane and are built to receive chemical messages from neurotransmitters
How does the sharing of messages between neurons happen?
Burst of electrical energy (action potential) in the neuron that signals it to release a neurotransmitter
What are the +/- electrically charged particles in our bodies called?
Ions - they create electricity
What are the ions involved with the process of action potential?
Na+, Cl-, and K+
What are the charges associated with polarized and depolarized cells?
Polarized - negative charge of around - 70 mV, cell is at rest and will not release neurotransmitters
Depolarization - positive and moving away from the state of being polarized. More action potential this way
How is the problem solved when more Na+ channels fill up?
More gated channels open for a rush of Na+ (propagation)
Propagation
Process by which electrical impulses get sent to the end of a neuron
What ions are required to produce the action potential VS maintain resting potential?
AP: Na+ RUSHING IN depolarizes the neuron
RP: K+ RUSHING OUT polarizes the neuron (resetting it)
Excitatory VS Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Causes a neuron to move closer to activation (more positive)
VS
Causes the charge inside a neuron to move away from activation (more negative)
True or False: A neuron may receive inputs from both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters
TRUE
What is the reference of a lock and key in neuronal membranes?
The lock is like a protein receptor binding, and a key is like a neurotransmitter in binding. Made to fit into a specially shaped binding site (lock) on the receptor (door)
Presynaptic neuron
Neuron that releases the neurotransmitter from its axon terminal
Postsynaptic neuron
Other side of the synapse. Neuron side that contains receptors (on dendrites) ready to bind neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron
Where are neurotransmitters created on the neuron?
Presynaptic Neuron
Is GABA an inhibitory or excitatory receptor?
Inhibitory - binds with receptor to open a chloride channel, which is negative, more likely to be inactivated
What is a description of a nerve?
Large bundle of axons from many neurons bundled into a tube that extends a large distance
What are axons?
Long, narrow projection from the cell body
Efferents VS Afferents
Axons carrying signals AWAY from the CNS
VS
Axons that carry signals TO the CNS
Neuroplasticity
Ability of neurons and networks to change. Gain and lose neurons, grow new dendrites, and change amount of receptors and neurotransmitters
Neocortex (think CEO of a company)
Outer part of brain with bumps (gyri) and valleys (sulci), responsible for all the high-level processing of info
Medulla (worksite and onsite managers of corporation)
Part of brain closest to your spinal cord that helps regulate basic life functions like breathing and heart rate
Peripheral nervous system (is below brain and connects to spinal cord) split into two divisions, what are they?
Somatic - controls the movement of head, torso, and limbs. Control and communicate with skeletal muscles
Autonomic (automatic) - part of nervous system that controls the more automatic functions of the body
Nerves leaving the spinal cord or brain are shared and go down into what?
Peripheral Nervous System
The autonomic system is further divided into what two divisions?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System
Division of autonomic nervous system that is responsible for things we do that require excitement. Ex. rapid heartbeat, high blood temp., dilates pupil
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Division of autonomic nervous system that is responsible for resting, digestion, and repairing body. Ex. Slows heart rate, constricts pupils
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Network of cells in the pons and medulla that help regulate the level of awareness and alertness in humans through connection between brain and body
Pons Location and Action
Above medulla
Regulates arousal and excitement
Serves as a bridge for upper to lower brain/spinal cord
The Limbic System
Network of Neurons and glia dedicated to regulating emotions, regulate endocrine activity, and forming emotional memories
What structures does the limbic system include? (In the cortex and the midbrain)
Prefrontal cortex, olfactory cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus
What is the purpose of an amygdalectomy?
Procedure involving experimental destruction of the amygdala in animals, makes animals docile.
Cingulate gyrus (ventral to the neocortex)
Network that becomes more active when we experience unpleasant things (physical pain and exclusion socially)
Hypothalamus functions
Regulates hunger responses, sexual behavior, temperature, and aggression
Frontal Lobes and its Function
Making decisions and movement.
What is the case of Phineas Gage?
Impaled with a rod through the head. Damage to his frontal cortex, and changed his personality
Motor Cortex location and function
Towards the back of the head in the frontal lobe
Houses primary neurons that initiate voluntary movement.
What is a Homunculus?
Graphical representation of the number of neurons dedicated to a specific body part/function
Why is the frontal lobe considered to be inhibitory?
It helps with making decisions and actions, and is responsible for weeding out/inhibiting improper behaviors
Polarization, Depolarization and Hyperpolarization affecting the action potential in a neuron
Neutral - Resting, K+ and Cl- are sitting immovable in the axon
Excitatory - Influx of Na+ ions into gated channels, causing action potential
Inhibitory - Influx of Na+ ions triggers efflux of K+ ions, making it more negative and decreasing action potential
vmPFC (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) VS. dlPFC (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) functions
Modulate behavior based on fear
VS
Maintain info in our working memory, change our actions to better fit a task
From birth, what are the last regions to undergo the process of myelination (speeds up impulses)?
Prefrontal cortex - results in lack of awareness
Lesions in temporal lobe negative effects
Because cells/neurons have died in that area it inhibits the ability to form new memories (anterogreade amnesia)
Primary Auditory Cortex location and function
Circuits of neurons in TEMPORAL LOBE dedicated to receiving and processing messages from the ears
Wernicke’s area location and effect
Located in temporal lobe - people who have injuries to this area have trouble comprehending speech
Temporal lobes and the 3 functions
Memory
Hearing
Olfactory senses
EEG purpose
Change in electrical potential in brain areas.
Brain waves variations
From neocortex
fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) primary purpose
Detect changes in blood flow relative to brain activity.
Allowing for scientists to determine which area of the brain has more activity.
PET scan purpose
Figure out which neurotransmitters are released (colourful image)
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
Method used in combination with MRI scans that allow white matter (axons with myelin) to be seen on the scan.
Helps to determine task performance and which neurons are responsible for an action
CT scan purpose
X-rays that pass through body and looks at structure of body
Sensation
Elementary parts of the environment that the brain uses to create meaning
Perception
Processing of stimuli to create a sensory understanding of the world
Gestalt psychologists and their beliefs
Believed we are born with specific, predisposed, ways of organizing info so that it has utility
Figure-ground (helps with organizing info)
Tuning out background noises to focus in on one input of information
Gestalt Principles of Organization
Principle of Proximity - grouped if close together
Principle of Similarity - similarities will be grouped
Principle of Closure - people perceive whole objects even if pieces are missing
Principle of Good Continuation - continuous lines are perceived even if lines cross one another
Principle of common fate - grouped together if moving together
What percentage of the cortex plays a role in the interpretation of visual info?
20%
How many nanometers of light are we able to perceive?
400-700 nm
Where are the photosensitive receptor cells located in the eye?
Retina
What part of the eye performs about 80% of the focusing of a visual image?
Cornea, the outermost part of the eye
Accommodation of the eye
Process through which the lens changes shape to bring objects into focus on the retina
Myopia VS Hyperopia
See objects more clearly when they are close VS farsightedness
List the order of light hitting structures of the eye
Cornea
Pupil
Lens
Vitreous Chamber
Retina
Iris Function
Controls diameter and size of pupil, controls amount of light reaching the retina
Optic Nerve location and function
Back of eye, down from the fovea.
Translates info from retina and sends info to visual cortex
Blind spot because of optic nerve
Cones
Fovea contains these cones.
Perceive color
Provide visual acuity - transmit fine detail when there is MORE LIGHT because connected to ganglion cells
Rods
Located in periphery of retina
Sensitive to low light levels
Help with perception of location of object and motion in environment
Length of wavelengths and their associated colours
Long- Reds (670 nm) L-cones
Medium - Greens (530 nm) M-cones
Shorter - Blues (450 nm) S -cones
Trichromatic Theory
Theory of color vision that proposes that color info is identified by comparing the activation of different cones in the retina