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Final Exam Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

The Cell Cycle

A

1 Cell growth and chromosome duplication
2 Chromosome segregation
3 Cell division
into daughter cells

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2
Q

Eukaryotic Cell-Cycle Times
Cell Type
Early frog embryo cells
Yeast cells
Mammalian intestinal epithelial cells
Mammalian fibroblasts in culture

A

Cell-Cycle Times
30 minutes
1.5 hours
~12 hours
~20 hours

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3
Q

Interphase

A

M Phase - mitosis (nuclear division), cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)
G1 Phase
S Phase - DNA Replication
G2 Phase

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4
Q

Cell Cycle Checkpoint: Enter Mitosis

A

Is all DNA replicated?
Is all DNA damage repaired?

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5
Q

Cell Cycle Checkpoint: Pull Duplicated Chromosomes Apart

A

Are all chromosomes properly attached to the mitosis spindle?

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6
Q

Cell Cycle Checkpoint: Enter S Phase

A

Is environment favorable?

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7
Q

Progression through the cell cycle depends on

A

cyclic- dependent protein kinases

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8
Q

The M-cyclin concentration and M-Cdk activity are at a ____ during mitosis and are ______ through interphase

A

high, rising

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9
Q

Distinct Cdk’s associate with different cyclins to trigger specific events in the cell cycle

A

and have different concentration and activity graphs

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10
Q

The Major Cyclins and Cdks of Vertebrates
Cyclin-Cdk Complex
G1-Cdk
G1\S-Cdk
S-Cdk
M-Cdk

A

Cyclin Cdk Partner
Cyclin D* Cdk4, Cdk6
Cyclin E Cdk2
Cyclin A Cdk2
Cyclin B Cdk1
*there are three D cyclins in mammals (cyclins D1, D2, and D3)

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11
Q

Cyclin-dependent kinase activity is often regulated through

A

targeted degradation of cyclin

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12
Q

Active cyclin-Cdk complex —1—> Ubiquitin Chain —2—> Inactive Cdk

A

1 Ubiquitylation of cyclin by APC
2 Destruction of cyclin in proteasome

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13
Q

For m-Cdk to be active, __________ __________ must be removed

A

inhibitory phosphates

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14
Q

Mitotic Cdk —1—> Inactive M-Cdk + Inhibitory Phosphate —2—> Active M-Cdk

A

1 M cyclin, Inhibitory kinase
2 Phosphate Ion, Activating Phosphatase

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15
Q

The activity of a Cdk can be blocked by

A

the binding of a Cdk inhibitor

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16
Q

Control of the cell cycle: Inhibition of activating phosphatase

A

Blocks entry to mitosis

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17
Q

Control of the cell cycle: Inhibition of APC activation

A

Delays exit from mitosis

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18
Q

Control of the cell cycle: Cdk inhibitors

A

Block entry to S phase

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19
Q

___ ______ can arrest the cell cycle in G1 phase

A

DNA damage (from an X-ray for example)

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20
Q

The initiation of DNA replication takes place in two steps
DNA, Cdc6, ORC (origin recognition complex sitting on origin) —1—> DNA helicase, pre-replicative complex (pre-RC) —2—> S-Cdk, Replication Fork, DNA polymerase —>

A

1 G1, Helicase binds, Cdc6 Dissociates, Orgin Loaded
2 S, Helicase activated, replication machine recruited, Origin Fired
Completion of DNA Replication

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21
Q

At mitosis, activated M-Cdk indirectly activated more M-Cdk, creating a

A

positive feedback loop

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22
Q

Mitosis is driven by

A

microtubules and associated proteins

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23
Q

Sister chromatids separate at

A

anaphase

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24
Q

The division of a cell into two daughters occurs in the _ _____ of the cell cycle

A

M phase

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25
Q

M phase consists of nuclear division, or _______, and cytoplasmic division, or ___________

A

mitosis, cytokinesis

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26
Q

Stages of the M Phase

A

Mitosis
1 prophase
2 prometaphase
3 metaphase
4 anaphase
5 telophase

Cytokinesis

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27
Q

During __________ , the cell increases in size. The ___ of the chromosomes is replicates, and the __________ is duplicated.

A

interphase, DNA, centrosome

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28
Q

Stages of Interphase

A

G1
S
G2

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29
Q

At ________, the duplicated chromosomes, each consisting of two closely associated ______ __________, condense. Outside the nucleus, the _______ _______ assembles between the two ___________, which have begun to move apart.

A

prophase, sister chromatids, mitotic spindle, centrosomes

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30
Q

____________ starts abruptly with the breakdown of the _______ ________. Chromosomes can now attach to _______ ____________ via their ____________ and undergo ______ ________.

A

Prometaphase, nuclear envelope, spindle microtubules, kinetochores, active movement

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31
Q

At _________, the ___________ are aligned at the equator of the spindle, midway between the spindle poles. The ___________ ____________ on each sister chromatid attach to opposite poles

A

metaphase, chromosomes, kinetochore microtubules

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32
Q

At ________, the ______ __________ synchronously separate and are pulled slowly towards the spindle pole to which they are attached. The ___________ ____________ get shorter, and the _______ _____ also move apart, both contributing to chromosome segregation.

A

anaphase, sister chromatids, kinetochore microtubules, spindle poles

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33
Q

During _________, the two sets of chromosomes arrive at the _____ of the spindle. A new _______ ________ reassembles around each set, completing the formation of two ______ and marking the end of _______. The division of the _________ begins with the assembly of the ___________ ____.

A

telophase, poles, nuclear envelope, nuclei, mitosis, cytoplasm, contractile ring

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34
Q

During ___________ of an animal cell, the cytoplasm is divided in two by a contractile ring of _____ and ______ _________, which pinches the cell into ___ _________, each with ___ _______

A

cytokinesis, actin and myosin filaments, two daughters, one nucleus

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35
Q

At metaphase, daughter chromosomes line up at the _______ of the dividing cell.

A

equator

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36
Q

__________ and ________ work together in chromosome condensation

A

Condensins and cohesins

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37
Q

The ____________ plays an essential role in mitosis

A

cytoskeleton

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38
Q

____________ of the mitotic spindle

A

microtubules

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39
Q

_____ and ______ _________ of the contractile ring

A

actin and myosin filaments

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40
Q

___________ are the origin of the microtubule network the comprises the _______ _________

A

Centrosomes, mitotic apparatus

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41
Q

Centrosome

A

G1

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42
Q

Replicated centrosome

A

G2

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43
Q

Aster
Forming mitotic spindle
Duplicated chromosome
Nuclear envelope
Metaphase spindle

A

M phase

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44
Q

Centrioles are replicated during the cell cycle in _ and __ phases

A

S and G2

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45
Q

____________ rearrange and move during chromosome segregation

A

Microtubules

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46
Q

Microtubules attach to chromosomes at the ___________

A

kinetochore

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47
Q

Three classes of microtubules are found in the mitotic apparatus

A

Aster microtubules
Kinetochore microtubules
Interpolar microtubules

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48
Q

___ triggers the separation of sister chromatids by promoting the destruction of ________

A

APC, cohesins

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49
Q

___________ is the last step in cell division

A

Cytokinesis

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50
Q

Multicellular organisms are made up of

A

organized collections of cells

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51
Q

Cells are organized into

A

tissues

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52
Q

In bone and order connective tissue, _____________ ______ is abundant

A

extracellular matrix

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53
Q

In skin and other tissues ________ _______ are organized into bundles

A

collagen fibrils

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54
Q

Procollagen precursors are cleaved to form

A

mature collagen outside the cell

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55
Q

procollagen & secretory vesicle —> secreted procollagen molecule —1—> collagen molecule —2—> collagen fibril

A

1 proteinase cleaves terminal procollagen extensions
2 self-assembly into fibril

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56
Q

Collagen fibrils in skin are arranged in a

A

plywood-like pattern

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57
Q

_______ _______ that result in incorrect collagen assembly in skin can have buzzard consequences

A

Genetic defects

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58
Q

__________ and ________ proteins help attach a cell to the extracellular matrix

A

Fibronectin and integrin

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59
Q

An integrin becomes activated when

A

it binds to molecules outside of the cell

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60
Q

Inactive integrin —1—> strong binding to … —> active integrin

A

1 binding to extracellular matrix or binding to cytoskeleton

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61
Q

Proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans can form

A

huge extracellular aggregates

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62
Q

Cells can be packed together in different ways to form

A

epithelial tissues

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63
Q

Epithelial tissues

A

Simple, stratified, columnar, cuboidal, squamous

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64
Q

A sheet of epithelial cells has an

A

apical and a basal surface

65
Q

Apical surface

A

Free surface

66
Q

Basal surface

A

Basal lamina
Connective tissue

67
Q

Functionally-polarized cell types line the

A

intestine

68
Q

________ molecules function to attach one cell to another

A

Cadherin

69
Q

Adherens junctions form adhesion belts around

A

epithelial cells in the small intestine

70
Q

Below tight junction
Bundle of actin filaments
Cadherins

A

Adherens junction

71
Q

___________ ______ can bend to form a tube

A

Epithelial sheets

72
Q

sheet of epithelial cells —1—> adhesion belt with associated actin filaments —2—> epithelial tube or vesicle

A

1 invagination of epithelial sheet caused by an organized tightening along adhesion belts in selected regions of cell sheet
2 epithelial tube pinches off from overlying sheet of cells

73
Q

Desmosomes link the

A

keratin intermediate filaments of one epithelial cell to another

74
Q

Gap junctions provide neighboring cells with a

A

direct channel of communication

75
Q

seals neighboring cells together in an epithelial sheet to prevent leakage of extracellular molecules between them; helps polarize cells

A

tight junction

76
Q

Joins an actin bundle in one cell to a similar bundle in a neighboring cell

A

Adherens junction

77
Q

Joins the intermediate filaments in one cell to those in a neighbor

A

Desmosome

78
Q

Forms channels that allow small, intracellular, water-soluble molecules, including inorganic ions and metabolites, to pass from cell to cell

A

Gap junction

79
Q

Anchors intermediate filaments in a cell to the basal lamina

A

Hemidesmosome

80
Q

___ _____ provide replacement cells for damage repair or renewal of tissues

A

Stem cells

81
Q

Normally undividing, stem cells can divide and differentiate into specialized cells within the tissue, a process referred to as

A

Terminal differentiation

82
Q

A terminally differentiated cell normally does not

A

divide any further

83
Q

The process of recruitment of dormant stem cells into differentiation is controlled by

A

inter-, intra-, and extra-, cellular signaling pathways

84
Q

Stem cells show promise as investigational tools and as a potential means for

A

combating genetic disorders

85
Q

Epithelium of

A

Epidermis

86
Q

Loose connective tissue of

A

Dermis

87
Q

Dense connective tissue of

A

Dermis

88
Q

Fatty connective tissue of

A

Hypodermis

89
Q

Langerhans cell (involved in immune responses)
Pigment cell (melanocyte)
Keratinocytes

A

Epidermis

90
Q

Macrophage
Collagen fiber
Fibroblast
Endothelial cell forming capillary
Lymphocyte

A

Loose connective tissue of dermis

91
Q

Fibroblasts
Elastic fiber
Collagen fiber

A

Dense connective tissue of dermis

92
Q

Stem cells divide to either produce

A

additional stem cells or terminally differentiated cells

93
Q

In the gut, epithelial stem cells arise in crypts and migrate apically to

A

repopulate dying epithelial cells

94
Q

The ___ __________ ________ controls the production of differentiated cells in the intestinal crypt

A

Wnt signaling pathway

95
Q

Wnt pathway active:
Wnt pathway inactive:

A

Cell proliferation
No cell proliferation

96
Q

In the skin, epithelial cells in the epidermis are renewed from

A

epithelial stem cells in the basal layer

97
Q

_____ ____ _______________ begins with hematopoietic stem cells located in the bone marrow

A

Blood cell differentiation

98
Q

T lymphocyte
B lymphocyte
Eosinophil
Basophil
Neutrophil
Monocyte —> osteoclast, macrophage
Megakaryocyte —> platelets
Red blood cells

A

Hemopoietic stem cell

99
Q

Embryonic stem cells are derived from an embryo and can give rise to

A

all of the tissues and cell types in the body

100
Q

Induced pluripotent stem cells can be generated by

A

transformation of cultured cells isolated from adult tissues

101
Q

Culture of fibroblasts from adult skin biopsy —1—> induced pluripotent stem cell —>

A

1 introduction of DNA encoding three key transcription regulators
Fat cell, neuron, macrophage, heart muscle cell, etc.

102
Q

Cancer is characterized by a loss of normal regulation of cell proliferation, and subsequent invasion of

A

cancer cells into normal tissues, thus disrupting their function

103
Q

____________ _____________ are common in cancer

A

Chromosomal abnormalities

104
Q

Genetic changes associated with alterations in cell survival or proliferation can lead to

A

cancer

105
Q

Gain of function mutation

A

Dominant mutation

106
Q

Loss of function mutation

A

Recessive mutation

107
Q

Dominant mutation
Normal cell —1—> activating mutation enables oncogene to stimulate cell survival, proliferation, or both —> excessive cell survival and proliferation

A

1 mutation in proto-oncogene creates oncogene

108
Q

Recessive mutation
Normal cell —1—> no effect of mutation in one gene copy —2—> two inactivating mutations functionally eliminate the tumor suppressor gene, promoting cell survival and proliferation —> excessive cell survival and proliferation

A

1 mutation inactivates one copy of tumor suppressor gene
2 second mutation inactivates second gene copy

109
Q

____________ __ _____ __________ _____ can result in the elevated incidence of some cancers

A

Inactivation of tumor suppressor genes

110
Q

Loss of function mutation in tumor suppressor gene in maternal chromosome + normal tumor suppressor gene in paternal chromosome =

A

Whole paternal chromosome lost
Region containing normal gene deleted
Loss of function mutation in paternal gene
Gene activity silenced by epigenetic changes

111
Q

(Epithelial cells growing on basal lamina)
A mutation gives one cell an advantage —1—> a second mutation increases the advantage —2—> a third mutation increases the advantage further and makes the cell invasive —3—>

A

1 cell survival and proliferation
2 cell survival and proliferation
3 dangerous cell survival, proliferation, and invasion

112
Q

Three pathways are altered in almost all human cancers

A

Alterations in cell proliferation
Alterations in DNA damage response
Alterations in cell growth

113
Q

Six properties required for cells to produce cancer

A

Loss of regulation of cell proliferation
Loss of susceptibility to programmed cell death
Avoid signaling pathways leading to differentiation
Genetically unstable
Invasiveness
Survival and proliferation in foreign sites

114
Q

Cancer incidence increases with

A

age

115
Q

All cells require a constant production of

A

chemical potential energy

116
Q

ATP serves as an energy carrier in cells, as well as a

A

monomer in cellular DNA

117
Q

Input of energy from sunlight or food —>

A

Released energy available for intracellular work and for chemical synthesis

118
Q

Subunits —1—> macromolecules —2—> macromolecular assembly

A

1 covalent bonds
2 noncovalent bonds

119
Q

Most covalent bonds in cells are single, and thus allow

A

free rotation around the bond

120
Q

Noncovalent interactions (hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions) limit the

A

possible conformations of macromolecules in the cellular milieu

121
Q

Catabolic and anabolic pathways in metabolism play key roles in

A

cell metabolism

122
Q

Food molecules —> useful forms of energy + heat lost + the many building blocks for biosynthesis

A

Catabolic pathways

123
Q

Useful forms of energy + the many building blocks for biosynthesis —> the many molecules that form the cell

A

Anabolic pathways

124
Q

enzyme, active site + molecule A (substrate) —> enzyme-substrate complex —1—> enzyme-product complex —> enzyme + molecule B (product)

A

1 catalysis

125
Q

Food molecule, energy —> energetically favorable reaction + inactive carrier —> oxidized food molecule + energy

A

Catabolism

126
Q

Molecule available in cell —> energetically unfavorable reaction + activated carrier w/ energy —> new molecule needed by cell, energy

A

Anabolism

127
Q

Activated carrier molecules couple

A

Catabolism and anabolism

128
Q

Multi-protein complexes act as _________ within cells

A

factories

129
Q

DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA by adding a

A

deoxynucleotide to its 3’ end

130
Q

At a replication fork the two DNA strands being replicated are of

A

opposite polarities

131
Q

Transcription of a eukaryotic gene is initiated by

A

RNA polymerase II

132
Q

Initiation of transcription —> 5’ RNA capping, elongation, and splicing —> 3’ RNA cleavage, polyadenylation, and termination of transcription —> export —> mRNA degradation —> initiation of protein synthesis (translation) —> completion of protein synthesis and protein folding —> protein degradation

A

Protein production in eukaryotes

133
Q

______________ __________ can work in a cooperative manner to control gene expression

A

Transcriptional regulators

134
Q

Stage 1: breakdown of foods to simple subunits
Stage 2: breakdown of simple subunits to acetyl CoA; limited amounts of ATP and NADH produced
Stage 3: complete oxidation of acetyl CoA to H2O and CO2; large amounts of ATP produced in mitochondrion

A

Stages of cellular metabolism

135
Q

Stage 2 of cellular metabolism

A

Glycolysis

136
Q

Stage 3 of cellular metabolism

A

Citric acid cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

137
Q

Net result of cellular metabolism

A

ATP, NADH, CO2, H2O

138
Q

This space contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundred of enzymes, including those required for the oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids and for the citric acid cycle

A

Mitochondrial matrix

139
Q

Folded into numerous cristae, this proteins that carry out oxidative phosphorylation, including the electron-transport chain and the ATP synthase that makes ATP

A

Mitochondrial inner membrane

140
Q

This is permeable to all molecules 5000 daltons or less because it contains large channel-forming proteins (called porins)

A

Mitochondrial outer membrane

141
Q

This space contains several enzymes that use the ATP passing out of the matrix to phosphorylate other nucleotides. It also contains proteins that are released during apoptosis

A

Mitochondrial intermembrane space

142
Q

High energy electrons are transferred through three protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane

A

NADH dehydrogenase complex
Cytochrome c reductase complex
Cytochrome c oxidase complex

143
Q

Inside cells many compartments are contained within

A

membranes

144
Q

Membrane-enclosed organelles import proteins by one of three mechanisms

A

Transport through nuclear pores
Transport across membranes
Transport by vesicles

145
Q

Extracellular signal molecule —> receptor protein —> intracellular signaling molecules —> effector proteins —> target cell responses

A

Intracellular signaling pathways can be activated by an extracellular signal molecule

146
Q

Metabolic enzyme, cytoskeletal protein, transcription regulator

A

Effector proteins

147
Q

Altered metabolism, altered cell shape or movement, altered gene expression

A

Target cell responses

148
Q

Extracellular signals

A

Survive, divide, differentiate, die

149
Q

Ion-channel-coupled receptors, G-protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-coupled receptors

A

Intracellular signaling complexes

150
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Ropelike fibers made of fibrous intermediate filament proteins. Give cells mechanical strength and distributes mechanical stress. Very flexible and have great tensile strength. Deform under stress but do not rupture.

151
Q

Microtubules

A

Hollow cylinders made of the protein tubulin. Long and straight and have one end attached to a centrosome. More rigid, rupture when stretched.

152
Q

Actin filaments

A

Helical polymers of the protein actin. Flexible. Most highly concentrated in the cortex.

153
Q

Microtubules grow out from an

A

organizing center

154
Q

Different motor proteins transport different

A

types of cargo along microtubules

155
Q

Actin filaments allow animal cells to

A

take on many shapes and have many functions

156
Q

Forces generated by actin filaments in the cortex of the cell drives

A

cell forward motion

157
Q

___ __________ drives myosin-II filaments along an actin filament

A

ATP hydrolysis

158
Q

Attached, released, cocked, force-generating, attached

A

Power stroke

Cell Bio (3 decks)

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