Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

CLPS 0200 > Final Exam 10/4-11/4 > Flashcards

Final Exam 10/4-11/4 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the relationship between proessing and encoding information

A

The deeper processing, the better you are at encoding information.

Example: attatching semantic understanding to words that you hear, rather than more surface level understadning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What does State Depending learning assert?

What does that conclude?

A

Levels of Processing shows that mental manipulations can affect encoding
- state of mind, body during encoding, recall

We are not only learning the information, but also the context in which it is presented

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Describe the difference between recall and recogition

A

Recall
- Given a cue, remeber infromation without prompting
- Involves memory search

Recognition
- Given infromation – is this something presented previously
- Involves familiarity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Define Explicit Memory

A
  • Conscious recollection of past events typically revealed through recognition or recall tasks
  • Memory with awareness
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Define Implicit Memory

A
  • Memory without awareness
  • Influence of past events on behaviour wihthout consciousness
  • “Subliminal”
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What are the three methods that test implicit memory?

A
  • Stem Completion
  • Mere Exposure Effect
  • Priming
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What do the three methods that test implicit memory, measure specifically?

A

All three involve measurment of memory without conscious awareness
- Behaviour is influenced without subject’s knowledge

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is mere exposure a form of?

A

Priming

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Define Priming

A

Any situation in which one’s current behaiour is infleunced by exposure to previous information

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the different types of priming?

A

1) Repetition priming (same stimulus twice)
2) Lexical priming (changing words perceptual appearence)
3) Associative priming (generate associate, then shown said associate)
4) Semantic Priming (“doctor” primes the presentation of “nurse”)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Describe Implicit Mempry Theory #1

A

Seperate memory systems
- Implicit memory is based on perceptual representations
- Explicit memory is based on episodic system, which analyzes meaning
- Biologically plausible

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Describe Implicit Memory Theory #2

A

A single system.
Implicit and explicit memory tasks impose different processing requirements
- Implicit tasks are perceptually driven
- Explicit tasks are conceptually driven

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Describe Implicit Memory Theory #3

A
  • Implicit memory are automatic processes (procedural)
  • Explicit memory requires a delcarative process. Rewuire conscious awareness.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

How do we remeber details?

A

They might not all be in there consciously, but we seem to be able to retain infromation below the level of consciousness

Its hard to say which theory is correct

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Describe retrograde amnesia

A

Memory loss for events before the onset of the syndrome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Describe Anterograde Amnesia

A
  • Memory loss for events after the onset of the syndrome
  • Issues of encoding or retreival
  • Procedural memory
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Decribe patient HM’s performance on implicit memory tasks

A
  • Similar to controls
  • Skill learning was not imparied
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Describe Anterograde Amnesia in terms of encoding information

A

Anterograde Amnesia is a failure to encode new information
- Explicit memory fails to get in
- Implicit memory system is functional

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What are some reasons for “Memory Errors”

A
  • Interference
  • Source Monitering
  • Suggestibility and Misinformation
  • Updating or social pressure
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Describe Proactive Interference

A

Old information in LTM interferes with the new material of the same type that you are trying to learn

Example
- Learn word list A. Then learn word list B. Tested on b.
- Memory is worse on list B than if you only learned list B without having learned list A first

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

How can proactive interference be mitigated?

A

Proactive interference is specific to the nature of the information being learned

Example
- Learn word list A. Then learn a list if numbers B. No interference effect

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Describe Retroactive Interference

A

Learning new information could affect how old infomarion is recalled

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Describe Content Interference

A

Learning and retaining an association is more difficult if the first member of the pair is used in more than one pair

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What are other types of memory erros?

A
  • Details are oftne lost, gist is retained
  • Remebering things that aren’t there
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What overarching things might infleunce memory errors?

A

The organization of memoery, and other types of prior knowledge influences memory errors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What are the 5 harachteristics of Schemas?

A
  • Organized knowledge structure
  • Reflect learned knowledge an expericnece
  • Embedded structure
  • Variables & default values
  • Malleable
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What are Schemas essential for?

A

Understanding and remebering

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What are the interim colclusions on Memory errors

A

Memory Erroes can be caused by thrre factos
- delay
- Interence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Describe Flashbulb memories

A

Certain emotionally charged events that can never be forgotten

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Describe Spreading Activation in the context of false memories and memory errors

A

We have a very highly interlinked associative network of things that we know.

When certain cells related to certain concepts are activated in the brain, it sends associative signals to other things that are related in semantic meaning.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Describe the following aspects of LTM

  • Duration
  • Capacity
  • Charachteristics
A

Duration: A lifetime, frequently without intervening practice

Capacity: No known limit

Characteristics: Meaningful relationships preserved (e.g., semantic associations; procedural orders; visual organization)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What factors affect long-term memory

A
  • Recency & primacy
  • Intentional vs. incidental processing
  • Interference – similarity between and timing of different materials that are to be remembered
  • Frequency effetcs – comonly occuring stuff is easier to remember than uncommon stuff
  • Retention interval (duration and type of intervening activity)
  • Task - recognition is generally better than recall
  • Retroactive and proactive interference
  • Motivation
  • Activity at study time - levels of processing
  • Organization of material
  • The associative nature of LTM
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What does Spreading Activation Theory Assert?

A
  • Specific concepts, experiences or ideas are stored in memory via areas of neural activation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

In Spreading Activation Theory, how are concept nodes activated?

A

Concept nodes can be activated by input from linked concept nodes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

How does activation spread in spreading activation theory?

A

Activation spreads from one concpet to related ones (closer associations = shoter lines)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

In Spreading Activation Theory when does a concept node fire?

A

Each concept node fires when it recieves sufficient activation to reach a threshold

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What did Whitten & Leonard aim to answer in their study?

A
  • How does memory change as a result of a recognition test?
  • What effects do the incorrect answers on a recognition test have on subsequent recall?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What did Whitten & Leonard’s experiment conclude regarding testing, recall and recognition?

A
  • One recall of an item increases the probability of subsequent recall or recognition
  • The increment in memory is inversley related to the difficulty of the initial test
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What was Whitten & Leonard’s Difficulty Hypothesis?
how does it differ from the confusion hypothesis?

A

Difficulty: The larger the number of distractors the more extensivley and completley memory must be searched during recognition (a more “recall-like” process)

  • More distractors = better recall

Confusion: More distractors could cause more confusion between target and distractos and produce worse recall if the distractos were similar to the target
- More distractors = worse recall

40
Q

Define Metacognition

A

Metacognition is the ability to effectivley monitor and adjust one’s own behaviour based on a self-assesment of how well one is doing so far

41
Q

Describe the Generation Effect

A

Generating a response or answer is a much more effective way to learn material than recognizing the correct answer from among several alternatives

42
Q

What did Metcalfe & Kornell assert in terms of Metacognition?

A

Studies two theories of study-time allocation

Discrepancey Reduction (DR)

Region of Proximal Learning (RPL)

43
Q

Define the Discrepancy Reduction (DR)

A

A person chooses to study the items that are furthest from being learned (ie. the most difficult ones)

44
Q

Define Region of Proximal Learning (RPL)

A

People focus on studying the easiest items they do not know

45
Q

What things support reading comprehension?

A

1) Considerate texts
2) Compatability between the text & the reader’s knowledge (appropriate text for the reader - age, culture)
3) Active strategies employed to understand, retain, and prevent comprehension failure

46
Q

Describe considerate texts

A

Texts that do not pre-suppose alot and very carefully lay out strings of reasoning that don’t require the reader to fill in missing information

47
Q

Why study metacognitive strategies using reading comprehension

A
  • They are essential for reading “inconsiderate texts” and for reading to “study” for thorough comprehnsion long-term retention
  • They get triggered when automatic processes fail to produce comprehension
  • They are general skills that can be applied to many situations
48
Q

Name some activities that promote metacognitive skills

A
  • Summarizing
  • Questioning
  • Clarifying
  • Predicting

These activities promote comprehension by helping students to self-monitor

49
Q

What is proleptic teaching?

A

When a novice participates in a group activity before being able to do it by themselves; learning by observing and practicing in the company of an expert

50
Q

What is the study of concepts and categories?

A
  • Semantic memory
  • Related to classification of visual information
51
Q

In terms of Concepts & Categories: What is the Classical Approach?

What two features are associated with this approach? Define them:

A

Defining a category by its Wholly Necessary and Jointly Sufficient Features

Necessary Feature
- Member must have this feature

Sufficient Feature
- Having this features means you are in the category

52
Q

What is a key component to the Classical Approach?

A

Semantic Networks

53
Q

What is a Semantic Netowork?

A
  • Categories are organized in a heirarchial strucutre
  • Features are associated with the highest category in the structure to which they apply everything below it.
54
Q

What does each level in a semantic network include?

A

Each level has a set of features
- Any vertical relation inherits features above it as well as its own

55
Q

What are the critiques of the Classical Approach?

A

Not economical
- Must represent all relations (both category relationships and properties)

Wittegenstein
- Not all concepts can be defined by necessary and sufficient features, nor di they necessarily lie in a clear hierarchy

56
Q

In terms of Concepts & Categories: What is the The Alternate View?

A

The Alternate View concerns Typicallity Effects
- Not all category members are equally good examples of the category

57
Q

In terms of the Alternate View approach
- What are the 4 ways that Typicallity Effects be assesed? (You may give examples)

A

1: Category Ratings
- On a scale of 1-10 rate how good of an example of a bird is a robin?
- Some memers are rated higher than other

2: Exemplar Production
- “List as many different types of birds as you can”
- Typical examples of a category are more likely to be generated than atypical examples and are generated first
- e.g., Robin&raquo_space; Penguin&raquo_space; Ostritch

3: Verification Reaction Times
- Measure reaction times for yes/no answers
- Is a robin a bird? vs. Is an ostrich a bird?

4: Semantic Priming
- In lexical decision task, faster at recognizing “robin” as a word if previous word was “bird”
- Priming does not work as well for ostritch

58
Q

In terms of the Alternative View Approach: What is explains Typicality Effects?

A

Prototypes - some average or ideal representation of a category
- Items that are more similar to the prototype are better/more quickly accessed, have stronger representation
- Note: Need a definition of “more similar”

59
Q

What is the Prototype Theory?

A

Category membershup is decided by similarity to a prototype

60
Q

Define a prototype in the context of the prototype theory (Concepts and Categorization)

A
  • For some categories, it’s the “ideal” member
  • For others, its the “average” member
61
Q

Describe the relationship between Familiarity and Prototypes

A

Prototype formation might be affected by our familiary with a category

  • Example: People in Australia think Emus are bettwe examples of birds than Americans do
62
Q

How do we form prototypes?
Define the Exemplar Theory

A

Exemplar space must result from experience in the world.

Category membership is determined by similarity judgements in an exemplar space

63
Q

How would you explain Typicality Data?

A

We tend to encounter more typical examples of a category than atypical examples

These exemplars are better recalled or recollected
- And remember that culture will affect typiciality data

64
Q

Advanteges to Exemplar-based categories

Describe variability effects?

A

Prototypes don’t tell you about the variability of a category

65
Q

What does covariation do in terms of concepts and categories?

A

Covariation washes out when features are avaergaed together
- Exemplar models preseve this information

66
Q

What are two ways that categories can be defined?

A

Similarity vs. Theories

67
Q

How is similarity defined as it pertains to defining categories?

A

Similarity can be defined by features

68
Q

In terms of similarity & features: What are some object categorization features?

A

1) Perceptual(color, shape, motion)
2) Conceptual (can move on its own)
3) Causal (can do something)
4) Intentional (is intended for something)

This generalizes to other kinds of categories

69
Q

What is the issue with defining categories based on similarity?

A

What does similarity mean?
- Suggests there are pragmatic problems in categorization

What is a feature?
- How can a feature be defined?
- Ay two items can be similar in an infinite number of ways (ex. less than 1000+ pounds)

70
Q

How do prototype and exemplar models utilize features or similarity

A

In both prototype and exemplar models, categorization is done by comparing a stimulus with an ideal or average.

71
Q

What is an alternative to using featues to asses similarity and assesing what a similarity/feature is?

A

Phsycological Essentialism

72
Q

Describe Psychological Essentialism

A

Overall, emphasiss is on causal relations among features, not just the features themselves.

Certain categories have essences that make them what they are. This essence causes all of the other features that category members have.

“There is an essence to categories”
- Ex. If you throw a lemon into the sun – is it still a lemon?
- Probably nor. The essence of the lemon is removed by burning all of it’s atoms

73
Q

In terms of Psychological Essentialism: What are two methods for grouping?

A

Natural Kinds

Artifacts

74
Q

In terms of Theories and Category Coherence: Describe how features, correlation and beahvior relate

A

Recognizing the correlation doesnt indicate why those correlations are present

Expemplars within a category do have certain features, amd those features are correlated.
Recognizing correlation doesnt explain why those correlations might be present BUT it can be used to predict behaviour

75
Q

When thinking in terms of relationships and categories. What do categories exemplify ?

A

Categories exemplify causal structure

76
Q

What conclusions can be drawn from Causal Structures?

A

Categories as theories suggest that our semantic knowledge is organizied through recognizing abstract causal properties of objects and events.

77
Q

How are causal structures learned?

A
  • Experience
  • Cultural Constructs
78
Q

Do all levels in a categorical heirarchy contain the same types of information?

A

No: Certain levels present more information about objects/entities than others
- “Basic level”

79
Q

In terms of categorical heirarchy, what does the basic level show?

A

The basic level in the heirarchy provides the highest “cue validity”

80
Q

What does Cue Validity measure?

A

Cue validity measures the diagnosticity of a feature for that category
- The probability that an object is a member of a category given that it has a particular feature

81
Q

How is semantic memory organized?

A

Vertical Structure
Horizontal Structure

82
Q

In terms of Semantic memory organization: Define Vertical Structure

A

Category Hierarchy
- Certain information is privledged – the Basic Level

83
Q

In terms of semantic memory organization: Define the Horizontal strucutre

A

Typicality
- Explained in different ways by different theories (prototype, exemplar, theories)
- Considerable influence of culture/experience/causal knowledge

84
Q

Describe Mental Imagery

A

humans and non-human animals can create and manipulate visual representations using top-down processes

85
Q

How did Aristotle denote mental images?

A

By the word phantasma, whcih plato used previously for reflections and pools (i.e., pictures)

He even claimed that it would be impossible to think without phantasma

86
Q

What did Descartes think about mental imagery?

How was it similar to that of Locke’s?

A

He likens ideas to pictures. He notes that ideas need not be literal pictures, but simply carry pictoral information that can correctly stimulate the soul.
- He recognizes that our minds are capable of conducting mental experiments and transformations that we may never have the ability to observe

Locke refers to “the pictures drawn in our minds” and likens ideas to images formed in primitive cameras

87
Q

What are the to theories proposed to describe representation?

A

Depictive or Descriptive

88
Q

Define the Depictive theory for representation

A

Representations are like pictures. they have spatio-visual structure and are “conceived” by the mind like they are “perceived” by the visual system

89
Q

Define the descriptive theory for representation

A

Representations are like scentences. They lack visuo-spatial structure and are more abstract and symbolic, like data on yout phone

90
Q

What did Francis Galton think about mental representations?

A

Found subjects varied great;y in self-reports of mental vividness

91
Q

What did William James think about mental representations?

A

Some people “have no visual images at all worthy of the name”

92
Q

Do Imagery & Visual Perception Interfere With Each Other?

A

We use some of the same neural resources to do imagery tasks, bith audio and perceptual

93
Q
A

Affects Imagery Ability & Visual Processing

It is a deficit of awareness for one side of the visual field
- Can arise from brain damage and typically affects contralateral side

94
Q

Define Eidetic Imagery

A

A visual image, representing a previously scanned stimulus
- Persisting for up to several minutes
- Phenomenally located in front of the eyes
- Positive in color, and usually on the plane where the original figure was shown.

95
Q

Descrobe the relationship between Eidetic Imagery and age

A

Eidetic Imagery is not frequent among adults
- Puberty or shortly before as the age of greates prevelence

96
Q

What is a trait of image scanning?

A

Image scanning is cognitivley penetrable
- it can be infleunced by other information or things either implicitly or explicitly

97
Q
A

CLPS 0200 (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions