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Philosophy > Final: Chapters 5, 9, 10, 11, and 12 > Flashcards

Final: Chapters 5, 9, 10, 11, and 12 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a fallacy?

A

An error in reasoning.

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2
Q

Fallacies of ambiguity

A

A word or expression is ambiguous if it has two or more distinct meanings and the context does not make clear which meaning is intended. “Ambi” means both.

Ex: Joe went to the bank.

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3
Q

Equivocation

A

This occurs when the arguer uses a keyword in two or more different senses.

P1: All men can talk.
P2: Women are not men.
C: So, women can’t talk.

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4
Q

Amphiboly

A

This fallacy occurs when the faulty grammatical structure of a sentence creates an ambiguity.

Billboards for Planned Pregnancies: Come to us for unwanted pregnancies.

Sign in laundromat: Customers are required to remove their clothes when the machine stops.

Headline: Two sisters reunited after 18 years in supermarket checkout line.

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5
Q

Fallacy of division

A

This occurs when we infer from what is true of the whole is true of its parts. We assume that a characteristic of the whole will be a characteristic of its individual parts or members.

Ex: The school board is inefficient. So, don’t expect Ms. Jones, the president of the school board, to be efficient.

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6
Q

The fallacy of ____ occurs in one of two ways:

1) The emphasis of a word or phrase leads us to the wrong conclusion.
2) A passage taken out of context leads us to a wrong conclusion.

A

Accent

Example:
FREE BOX OF CHOCOLATES (when you buy $200 worth of merchandise by the end of the month)

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7
Q

Fallacy of composition

A

When we infer from what is true of the parts is true of the whole.

Ex: Every player on the Lakers is (individually) an excellent player. Therefore, the team is excellent.

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8
Q

Fallacies of relevance

A

These are mistakes in reasoning that occur because the premises (evidence) are logically irrelevant (unrelated) to the conclusion.

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9
Q

Ad Hominem

A

This fallacy occurs when we disagree with another’s conclusion and attack them personally instead of presenting a legitimate counter argument. We attack their character and their circumstances (association with a particular group, their ethnicity, their gender, etc.).

Ex: Calling someone a hypocrite

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10
Q

Appeal to force

A

This occurs when we use or threaten to use force in an attempt to get others to back down or accept our conclusions.

Ex: Don’t disagree with me. Remember who pays your college tuition.

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11
Q

Appeal to pity

A

This occurs when we try to evoke feelings of pity in others when pity is irrelevant to the conclusion.

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12
Q

Popular appeal

A

This occurs when we appeal to popular opinion to gain support for our conclusion. Two types: bandwagon approach and the snob appeal.

Ex: Everyone/Justin Bieber believes it, so you should believe it too.

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13
Q

Snob appeal

A

This occurs when we associate a certain idea with an elite group of people or a popular image. Very common in advertising.

Ex: Taylor Swift drinks Pepsi, so I will too.

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14
Q

Bandwagon

A

This argument type is one that appeals to a person’s desire to be popular, accepted, or valued.

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15
Q

Appeal to ignorance

A

This fallacy occurs when we try to argue something is true because no one has proven it false or vice versa.

Ex: You can’t prove that God doesn’t exist, so God does exist.

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16
Q

Hasty generalization

A

A generalization is made from a sample that is either too small or is biased.

Ex: Every American Catholic interviewed is against abortion. Therefore, most Americans are against abortion.

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17
Q

Straw man

A

This occurs when a person purposely distorts or misrepresents the opponent’s argument, making it easier to knock down or refute.

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18
Q

Red Herring

A

This occurs when a person tries to sidetrack an argument by going off on a tangent and bringing up a different issue directed toward a different conclusion.

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19
Q

Begging the question

A

Occurs when an argument’s conclusion is simply the rewording of its premise. This fallacy is also known as circular reasoning.

Ex: Capital punishment is wrong because it is unethical to inflict death as a punishment.

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20
Q

Inappropriate appeal to authority

A

Occurs when we look to an authority in a field that is unrelated or not under investigation (irrelevant to the conclusion).

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21
Q

Loaded question

A

Occurs when a question is asked that assumes a particular answer to another unasked question.

Ex: Are you still in favor of this fiscally irresponsible bill?

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22
Q

False dilemma

A

Reduces responses to complex issues to an either/or choice. By doing so, this fallacy polarizes stands on issues and ignores common group or other solutions.

Ex: Black and white reasoning.

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23
Q

Questionable cause

A

Occurs when a person assumes, without sufficient evidence, that one thing is the cause of another.

Ex: Earthquake weather caused the earthquake.

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24
Q

Slippery slope

A

According to this fallacy, if we permit a certain action, then all actions of this type, even the extreme ones, will definitely occur.

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25
Q

Naturalistic fallacy

A

If something is natural, it is good or acceptable. If something is unnatural, however, it is bad or unacceptable.

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26
Q

Mass media

A

Forms of communication that are designed to reach and influence very large audiences.

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27
Q

Niche media

A

Forms of communication geared to a narrowly defined audience.

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28
Q

Media literacy

A

The ability to understand and critically analyze the influence of the mass media.

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29
Q

Tabloid journalism

A

A style of journalism that tends to emphasize topics such as sensational crime stories, astrology, gossip columns about the personal lives of celebrities and sports stars, etc.

30
Q

Inverted pyramid

A

A metaphor that writers and journalists use to figure out which news to state or which news to structure in text.

31
Q

Why is it important to follow the news?

A
  • Events can affect us personally (changes in laws, local crime, preparation for emergencies)
  • Trends in social policy, legislation
  • Makes us worldly (globalization)
  • Required for democracy to thrive
32
Q

In order for an informed democracy to exist, the news media must be…

A
  • Independent and unbiased
  • Aggressive
  • Critical
33
Q

How to identify tabloid journalism

A
  • Sources are seldom cited
  • Language is simple
  • Headlines often make outrageous claims
  • Photographs are attention-grabbing or shocking
  • Advertisements promote products of questionable value
34
Q

Legitimate news will…

A
  • Use attribution (“”, he said, according to, etc.)
  • Avoid emotive language
  • Refer to crime suspects as “the alleged”
35
Q

The Internet has been called…

A

“The Great Equalizer”

36
Q

True or false: currently, in America, there are no restrictions of any kind on access to content on the Web, no restrictions on downloads or uploads, and no restrictions on communication methods (email, chat, IM, etc.

A

True

37
Q

What is net neutrality?

A

It is the assurance that access to the Web and its content will not be blocked, slowed down, or sped up depending on where that access is based or who owns the access point(s).

38
Q

1) Which corporations oppose Net Neutrality?

2) Why?

A

1) AT&T, Verizon, and Comcast.

2) They claim it would harm investment and innovation.

39
Q

Moral reasoning

A

Used when a decision is made about what we ought to or ought not to do.

40
Q

Moral sentiments

A

Emotions that alert us to moral situations and motivate us to do what is right.

41
Q

Helper’s high

A

The feeling that occurs when we help other people.

42
Q

Conscience

A

A source of knowledge that provides us with knowledge about what is right or wrong.

43
Q

Compassion

A

Sympathy in action.

44
Q

Moral outrage

A

Indignation in the presence of an injustice or violation of moral decency.

45
Q

Shame

A

A feeling resulting from the violation of a social norm.

46
Q

Moral dilemma

A

A situation in which there is a conflict between moral values.

47
Q

Ethical subjectivism

A
  • One who believes that morality is nothing more than personal opinion or feelings. This theory claims that people create their own morality.
  • “What I think is morally right might be different from what you believe is morally right. Therefore, all moral judgement are dependent upon the beliefs of individuals.”
  • All opinions on moral issues are equally right according to this theory.
48
Q

Cultural relativism

A
  • People look to societal norms for what is morally right and wrong.
  • Culture: a group of people who share beliefs, customs, characteristics, etc.
49
Q

Utilitarianism

Hint: “All’s well that ends well.”

A
  • A moral philosophy in which actions are evaluated based on their consequences. Therefore, an action would be considered moral if the end result is morally good. Your intentions do not matter, only the consequences.
50
Q

Deontology

A
  • The ethics of duty. We should do the right thing because we are morally obligated to do so. Your intentions, not the consequences of your action, are what count morally.
  • Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative: when making a moral decision, we must…
    1) Ask whether this action should be universalized.
    2) Never use people as a means to an end; treat all people with dignity.
  • Example: Lying is always morally wrong.
51
Q

Science

A

The use of reason to move from observable, measurable facts to hypotheses to testable explanations from those facts.

52
Q

Empiricism

A

The belief that our physical senses are the primary source of knowledge.

53
Q

Objectivity

A

The assumption that we can observe and study the physical world without any observer bias.

54
Q

Materialism

A

The belief that everything in the universe is composed of physical matter.

55
Q

Scientific method

A

A process involving the rigorous, systematic application of observation and experimentation.

56
Q

Hypothesis

A

A proposed explanation for a particular set of phenomena.

57
Q

Pseudoscience

A

A body of explanations or hypotheses that masquerades as science.

58
Q

Placebo

A

A substance used in experiments that has no therapeutic effect.

59
Q

Normal science

A

Scientific research that is based on past achievements and is recognized by most scientists.

60
Q

Paradigm

A

The accepted view of what the world is like and how we should go about studying it.

61
Q

Scientific Revolution

A

A paradigm shift in which a new scientific theory replaces a problematic paradigm.

62
Q

What factors influence our moral beliefs?

A
  • Our ability to use reasoning/critical thinking skills (rationality)
  • Society’s norms/values
  • Empathy/compassion toward others (emotions; our conscience)
  • Religion
  • Family relationships/environment
  • Biology (frontal lobe cortex in the brain: think Phineas P. Gage)
63
Q

What is ethical theory? How many types of ethical theory are there? Which are they?

A
  • Definition: A framework for explaining what makes actions and belief systems right or wrong, good or bad.
  • Two types: relativism (morality depends on individuals’ beliefs or strictly on their culture) and universal (morality does not depend exclusively upon personal beliefs nor culture).
64
Q

What are some problems with relativism?

A
  • Morality is arbitrary. There are no firm standards of morality if you believe in relativism.
  • Cultural relativism seems to favor those in power, while it ignores the views of the “voiceless.”
  • You cannot have rational arguments about ethical questions. Relativism is based on opinion or generalizations about cultures.
65
Q

The basic pattern of scientific reasoning

A
  1. Identify the problem: In order for science to be useful, the problem must be testable; it can’t be about something observable. Empiricism, the belief that our physical senses are the primary source of knowledge, is a basic assumption of science.
  2. Gather relevant data and develop an initial hypothesis. A hypothesis is an educated guess.
  3. Gather additional information and refine the hypothesis. If the evidence gathered shows that the hypothesis is wrong, then it needs to be adjusted.
  4. Test the hypothesis. The hypothesis predicts the results. If it turns out to be wrong, the hypothesis is wrong, it is unconfirmed and we reject it. If it turns out to be correct, further testing occurs. Science encourages challenges to theories.
66
Q

The three levels of thinking

A

From bottom to top:

  1. Experience (observation)
  2. Interpretation (hypothesis)
  3. Analysis (experimentation/testing)
67
Q

Hypotheses become stronger each time…

A

The tests confirm its validity.

68
Q

Science cannot answer questions of meaning and value because…

A

They are not questions about verifiable facts.

Examples: questions of meaning (does the universe or life have a purpose?) and questions of value (ethical questions)

69
Q

How do you distinguish science from pseudoscience?

A

Pseudoscience is false science. It appears to be science, but it is not.

Ex: predicting the future, astrology, psychic, healing, numerology, tarot cards, ESP (mind reading), collective consciousness

70
Q

Pseudoscience and “miracle” cures

A
  • Personal experience: “I tried it and worked.”
  • Anecdotal evidence: “Someone else tried it and it worked.”
  • Paid testimonials: “A famous actor or sports hero was glad to say it works.”
  • Folklore: “An ancient practice says it works.”
71
Q

What are the six features of pseudoscience?

A
  1. It makes claims that are not testable.
  2. It makes claims that are inconsistent with well-established scientific truths.
  3. It “explains away” or ignores falsifying data.
  4. It uses vague language.
  5. It is not progressive.
  6. It often involves no serious effort to conduct research.
72
Q

Which are the four tricks of advertising?

A
  1. Shame (you’ve got a problem; ex: teeth not white enough)
  2. Optimism (your problem can be solved)
  3. Solution (you need this product to solve your problem)
  4. Rationale (you have the right to solve your problem)

Philosophy (8 decks)

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