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LS 1 > Final chapters > Flashcards

Final chapters Flashcards

1
Q

osmosis

A

the net movement of water from higher water concentration to lower

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2
Q

solutes

A

dissolved molecules (AAs, sugars, electrolytes)

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3
Q

semipermeable membranes

A

let some but not all through

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4
Q

aquaporins

A

channels in the lipid bilayer that facilitate diffusion of water molecules

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5
Q

osmotic pressure

A

drives water diffusion, cause by difference in concentrations
- the tendency of water to move from one solution into another by osmosis

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6
Q

osmoregulation

A

regulation of water and solute conc. levels to control osmotic pressure

  • animals by balancing H20 and electrolytes (Na, K, Cl)
  • salmon major osmoregulation changes: born in freshwater, live life in saltwater, migrate to spawn in freshwater
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7
Q

osmoconformers

A

keep internal osmotic pressure equal to external enviro (reduces mov’t and energy)
ex. marine animals retain lots of urea to match the external conc.

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8
Q

osmoregulators

A

organisms who maintain different internal enviro from external.

  • skin prevents free flow/passage
  • actively maintain diff. osmotic pressure
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9
Q

osmoregulator examples in animals

A

gills - chloride cells: counter ingestion and diffusion of excess electrolytes - pump Cl out into water, and Na out. In freshwater - pump Na in

sharks and rays - rectal gland: secrete excess salt

marine birds - nasal salt glands excrete salt

shrimp - hypo+hypertonic enviro

paramecia - contractile vacuole (exocytosis)

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10
Q

dehydration of prey

A

= capture

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11
Q

nitrogenous waste

A

byproduct/breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
ammonia
mammals - urea: less toxic
birds and reptiles - uric acid

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12
Q

human nitrogenous waste process

A

1) filtration into excretory tubules
2) reabsorption (key ions and solutes)
3) secretion of toxic compounds and excess ions

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13
Q

excretory organs in organisms

A

flatworm - protonephridia : secretory organs
segmented worm - metanephridia
insects, terrestrial arthropods - malpighian tubes (secrete uric acid)
vertebrates/mammals - filter blood through kidneys

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14
Q

kidneys

A

1) glomerulus
2) renal tubules
3) collecting ducts
4) ureter
5) bladder/cloaca

nephron = functional unit of kidney
(glomerulus, capsule, renal tubes)

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15
Q

deuterostomes

A
  • anus develops first
  • radial cell divisions

hemichordates
echinoderms
chordates: cephalochordates, tunicates, vertebrates

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16
Q

hemichordates

A

seafloor wormlike animals

1) mouth w/ proboscis - elongate protuberance connected to
2) digestive tract by pharynx w/
3) pharyngeal slits - separated by stiff rods of protein
4) dorsal hollow nerve cord

acorn worms - burry in marine sediments
pterobranchs - attach to seafloor and use tentacle to filter feed

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17
Q

echinoderms

A

seastars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sand dollars (7000 species)

1) radially symmetric adult
- bilaterally symmetric larvae
- pentaradial symmetric adults
2) calcium carbonate endoskeleton
3) water vascular system:bulk transport of oxygen and nutrients
- hydrostatic skeleton
4) tube feet: small projections from water vascular system that facilitate locomotion, sensory perception, food capture, and gas exchange

sea cucumber self defense: self evisceration – can regrow intestines

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18
Q

chordate characteristics

A

1) pharynx w/ pharyngeal gill slits
2) dorsal hollow nerve cord that runs the length of the body, comprised of projections from neurons
- develops from neural tube
3) notochord - stiff, supportive, flexible rod of collagen, runs length of the body
- vertebral column eventually replaces notochord
4) muscular post-anal tail-

  • myotomes: series of segments that organizes body musculature
  • tail and muscularized appendages (fins + legs)
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19
Q

chordates

A

1) cephalochordates
2) urochordates (tunicates)
3) vertebrates

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20
Q

cephalochordates

A

lancelets or amphioxus

  • small mobile suspension feeders
  • adults burrow in sand, ocean-bottom habitats
  • dorsal hollow nerve cord runs parallel to notochord
  • notochord stiffens the body
  • muscle contractions on either side –> fishlike movement
  • no well developed brain or mineralized skeleton
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21
Q

urochordates (tunicates)

A

sea squirts and tunicates

  • notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, tail, only occur in larvae or sexually mature forms of motile species
  • pharyngeal gill slits - feeding and gas exchange
  • siphon-like mouth, anal siphon expels water
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22
Q

vertebrates (craniates)

A

chondrichthyes
osteichthyes
amphibians
sauropsids

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23
Q

vertebrate characteristics

A

1) veterbrae - series of hard segments that runs along the main axis of the body, creating the jointed skeleton
2) cranium - protects well developed brain
3) pair of eyes, distinctive mouth, internal skeleton
4) coelom in which organs are suspended - closed circulatory system
5) jaws
6) paired fins

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24
Q

hagfish and lamprey

A
  • cranium but no jaws
  • hagfish no vertebral column
  • lampreys cartilage along dorsal hollow nerve cord
  • lack appendages
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25
Q

chondrichthyes

A

cartilaginous fish - sharks, rays, skates

  • rays and some sharks viviparous: embryos develop inside the female & are attached to the mother by a placenta
  • skates and some sharks
    oviparous: embryos develop in an egg case external to mother
    jaws w/ cartilage skeleton + mineralized teeth
  • can retain high levels of urea - salt balance
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26
Q

ostelchtyes (bony fish)

A

bony fish: ray-finned fish,
fleshy-finned fish (8 extant species)
- cranium, jaws, bones from mineralized CaCO3
1) system of movable element in jaws allowing for specialization and diversification of feeding
2) unique gas-filled sac called a “swim bladder” - permits control over position in water via changes in buoyancy (like lungs)
3) kidneys: low water balance regulation occupy water over wide range of salinity
4) fins supported by bony rods
5) bony skeleton
6) stiff but flexible body covering of interlocking scales

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27
Q

tetrapods

A

11 phyla w/ aquatic and terrestrial - aquatic were earlier
fleshy-finned fish
amphibians
amniotes

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28
Q

fleshy-finned fish

A

closest relative to tetrapods

  • have pectoral and pelvic fins
  • include coelacanth (400 mya) and lungfish (bury into wet mud)
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29
Q

amphibians

A

frogs & toads
salamanders
caecilians (lack limbs)
- habitat: ponds, lakes, or moist terrestrial environments
- must reproduce in water but life cycles parts above water
- external fertilization, oviparous, water dependent egg, metamorphosis

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30
Q

amniotes

A

amniotic egg : can exchange gases while retaining water - can survive dry, terrestrial habitats

sauropsids (reptiles) and mammals

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31
Q

Edicaran fossils

A

575 mya
first mammal fossils
simple, fluid-filled tubes

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32
Q

Cambrian fossils

A

542-489 mya
skeletons of silica, CaCO3, calcium phosphate
- sponges and cnidaria produced calcium phosphate

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33
Q

more fossils

A

arthropods –> land 420 mya
radiaton of insect + mammal fossils - 360 mya
dinosaurs - 210

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34
Q

key innovations in vertebrate lineage

A

1) bony exoskeleton
2) jaws
3) bony endoskeleton
4) limbs capable of moving on land
5) amniotic egg

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35
Q

vertebrate jaw

A

leading hypothesis for origin: natural selection acted on developmental regulatory genes that determine gill arch morphology
evidence:
- jaws and gill arches similar bony or cartilaginous morphology
- muscles that move both structures have the same embryonic origin
- both structures derived from neural crest cells
- regulatory gene expression patterns similar

  • gill arch: curved regions of tissue between the gills
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36
Q

teeth = diet specialization

A

omnivores - diverse array of teeth (meat and plants)
carnivores - large canines
herbivores - premolars + molars

incisors - cut
canines - rip & shear
premolars - shear
molars - grind

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37
Q

vertebrate/craniate characteristics

A
  • cranium + vertebral column
  • 2 pairs of appendages
  • bone w/ calcium phosphate
  • neural crest tissue (brain case)
  • well developed circulatory system (with heart)

includes hagfish, lampreys, catrilaginous fish, bony fish (chondrichthyes, ostelchthyes)

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38
Q

reproduction in bony fish

A

anadromous species: spend adult life in ocean but swim up freshwater streams to breed then die (salmon, some lamprey)

catadromous species: spend adult life in freshwater streams but swim to the ocean to breed (freshwater eels)

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39
Q

sequential hermaphroditism

A

protogyny - female to male

protandry - male to female

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40
Q

tiktaalik

A

the organism connecting fish to tetrapods

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41
Q

water to land transition

A

1) need for support - musculature and skeletal modifications
2) reproductive issues - removal of need for water (internal fertilization and amniotic egg)
3) changes in sensory structures - hearing and sight
4) respiration - lungs for air breathing
5) osmoregulation - kidneys for dealing with nitrogenous wastes

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42
Q

gas exchange organs

A

aquatic:
external gills
internal gills

terrestrial:
tracheae (grasshopper), spiracle
internal lungs w/ alveoli, bronchi

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43
Q

amniotic egg

A

albumen - protein-rich solution which cushions the developing embryo and provides nutrients

yolk - nourishes developing embryo

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44
Q

sauropsids (reptiles) adaptations

A

turtles, lizards and snakes, crocodiles and alligators, birds

1) watertight skin made by a layer of keratinous scales
2) breathe air through well developed lungs
3) lay amniotic eggs enclosed in shells

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45
Q

aves (bird) adaptations

A
  • descended from feathered dinosaurs
  • feathers: provide insulation, used for display, furnish the lift, power, and steering needed for flight
  • large breast muscles used to flap wings
  • lightweight bodies
  • bones filled with air sacs
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46
Q

wings and flight

A

evolved independently in three lineages of tetrapods:

1) pterosaurs (extinct)
2) bats
3) birds

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47
Q

mammal phylogeny (characteristics)

A

1) hair or fur - insulation
2) endothermy - regulate body temperatures with internally generated heat
3) mammary glands for lactation - ability to provide young with extensive parental care

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48
Q

mammal reproduction (types)

A

1) monotremes - egg-laying mammals
2) marsupials - pouched mammals
3) eutherians - placental mammals

advantages:

1) offspring develop in a controlled environment
2) offspring are protected
3) offspring are portable

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49
Q

learning

A

change of behavior as a result of experience

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50
Q

Timbergen’s Questions

A

1) causation - what physiological mechanisms cause the behavior?
2) development - how did the behavior develop?
3) adaptive function - how does the behavior promote the individual’s ability to survive and reproduce?
4) evolutionary history - how did the behavior evolve over time?

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51
Q

innate behavior

A

instinctive and carried out regardless of earlier experience

- triggered by specific stimulus

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52
Q

learned behavior

A

comes from individual’s experience

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53
Q

nature vs. nurture

A

genetically encoded vs conditioned by environment

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54
Q

methods to determine genetic influence

A
    • crossing closely related species w/ diff behaviors and examining offspring behavior
    • molecular studies provide new ways to understand the role of genes in behavior
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55
Q

displays

A

patterns of behavior that are species specific and tend to be highly repeatable and similar from one individual to the next

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56
Q

fixed action pattern (FAP)

A

sequence of behaviors that, once, triggered, is followed to completion (continues to end even if interrupted)

  • species specific
  • no variation in pattern of behaviors, highly repeatable
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57
Q

key stimulus

A

stimulus that initiates FAP behavior

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58
Q

supernormal stimulus

A

ex. soccerball w/ goose - exaggerated response - elicits even stronger response

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59
Q

feature dectectors

A

specialized sensory receptors or groups of sensory receptors that respond to important signals in the environment (ie mating call of certain frog species)
- can recognize own species, and stimulus

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60
Q

hormone

A

can affect multiple cells in target organs simultaneously

affect example: male courting behavior in lizard species stimulates female hormone production (full dev of ovaries for reproduction) – but castrated male = no testosterone = no courtship stimulus

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61
Q

artificial selection and gene influence on behavior

A

can alter behavior as well (hunting vs shepherding dog)
- genetically controlled by many genes w/ relatively small effect so difficult to determine which genes control what
for(s) and for(R) determine foraging/sitting in bees and fruit fles
- hormone and receptor gene changed sexual behavior

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62
Q

non-associative learning

A

learning that occurs in the absence of any particular outcome such as reward or punishment
ex. habituation, sensitization

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63
Q

habituation

A

reduction or elimination of a behavioral response to a repeatedly presented stimulus

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64
Q

sensitization

A

the enhancement of a response to a stimulus that is achieved by presenting a strong or novel stimulus first
- weak primary electric shock of aplysia (sea slug) makes a 2nd touch of siphon much more rapid reaction– heightened sensitivity

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65
Q

associative learning (conditioning)

A

when an animal learns to link (or associate) two events

two types: classical and operant

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66
Q

classical conditioning

A

(stimulus/behavior association)
two stimuli are paired
ex. meat powder and bell –> bell can cause salivation alone

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67
Q

operant conditioning

A

(behavior/response association)
linking a behavior with a reward or punishment – generally in young exploring animals, the novel behavior becomes more or less likely

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68
Q

imitation

A

learning by copying another individual

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69
Q

imprinting

A

form of learning typically seen in young animals in which they acquire a certain behavior in response to key experiences during a critical period of development – results usually irreversible

ex. ducklings following first animal seen after birth (usually the mom) = filial imprinting

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70
Q

kineses

A

random, undirected movements in response to stimulus

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71
Q

taxes

A

movements in a specific direction in response to a stimulus

  • magnetotaxis: bacteria detect magnetic fields and swim north
  • pigeon navigation: sun as compass, stars at night, detect magnetic field, olfactory, visual cues, biological clock (time & sun orientation)
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72
Q

circadian clock

A

daily rhythms in animals regulate feeding, sleeping, hormone production, core body temp
- light is primary input

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73
Q

other biological clocks

A

lunar clock - in tidal enviros
annual clock - cicadas every 13-17 yrs
seasonal clock - photoperiod (day length)

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74
Q

communication

A

the transfer of information between two individuals - the sender and the receiver

signal types: visual, auditory, electrical, chemical, mechanical

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75
Q

ritualization

A

the process by which communication has evolved through co-opting and modifying behavior used in another context

1) increasing the conspicuousness of the behavior
2) reducing the amount of variation in the behavior
3) increasing separation from the original function (scent territory marking originally just waste removal)

76
Q

limited-war strategies

A

males size each other up/ compare roars in order to asses who’s dominant - avoids fighting in which even the winner may be seriously injrued

77
Q

deceitful communication

A

predator to prey, pretending to be bigger, etc.

78
Q

advertisement displays

A

behaviors in which individuals draw attention to their status (sexual, territory)

79
Q

white crowned sparrows song imprinting (communication)

A

critical time window for learning (10-50 days post hatching)
if song not heard in sensitive period, will not produce song

  • song can be learned even with background noise (another species call)
80
Q

honeybee waggle dance (communication)

A

indicates how far and in which direction food source is located
within 50m = round dance (circle)

81
Q

mutually beneficial cooperation

A

ex: killer whales generate wave together to wash seal (prey) off iceberg because they can’t do it alone

82
Q

altruistic behavior

A

self-sacrifices made by individuals for the good of others

Not evolutionarily stable strategy:

  • behavior can readily be driven to extinction by alternative strategy
  • -group selection easily overthrown by selfish strategy
83
Q

group selection

A

natural selection working on groups

– altruistic group would do better than a selfish bunch

84
Q

reciprocal altruism

A

individuals exchange favors - can evolve altruism

- vampire females live together - help out w/ food

85
Q

kin selection

A

form of natural selection that favors the spread of alleles that promote behaviors that help close relative or kin (depending on the benefits)
direct + indirect = inclusive fitness

86
Q

Dr. Hamilton’s kin selection formula

A

B - benefit of behavior to recipient (how many saved)
C - cost of behavior to donor (how many offspring lost)
r - degree of relatedness between recipient and donor

if rB > C, then altruism can evolve

relatedness - likelihood that a gene is shared by common descent

helping sibling have 2 offspring = same fitness as 1 of your own

87
Q

altruistic kin selection examples

A

aphids: extreme relatedness
parthenogenic reproduction generates clones, soldier aphids protect colony and don’t reproduce
–> their own genes pass on to next generation by those protected

Hymenoptera (bees, ants, wasps)
– eusocial: overlapping generations in a nest
cooperative care of the young, clear and consistence division of labor between reproducer (Queen) and workers – females are more related to each other than they would be to offspring (males are haploid)

88
Q

superorganism

A

single social insect colony in which each individual has a specific role

89
Q

sexual selection

A

traits evolved that increase the probability of finding and attracting mates

90
Q

sexual dimorphisms

A

pehnotypic differences between the sexes

  • -> acts more on males because they generally have to attract mates - females invest more time in offspring and chose which male etc
  • -> tables turned: when males incubate offspring, females are brightly colored
91
Q

intrasexual selection

A

same-sex competition (often males)

92
Q

intersexual selection

A

males compete for female attention

  • females choose males based on their advertisement or other way around depending on who raises the offspring
  • must be variation in male quality, correlation between trait and quality
93
Q

population

A

consists of all the individuals of a given species that live and reproduce in a particular place and is characterized by its size, range, and density

94
Q

ecology

A

the study of relationships of organisms to one another and to the environment

95
Q

factors that influence evolution

A

abiotic: climate and nutrient availability
biotic: competitors, predators, prey, parasites, organisms that provide food & shelter

96
Q

logistic growth

A

exponential then levels off at carrying capacity results in S- shaped curve

1) rate of max reprod of each indiv
2) reflects onset of additional factors (decreasing food and space availability)

ex: rate of O2-hemoglobin binding

97
Q

intrinsic growth rate

A

“r” - max growth rate per individual when growth not limited by resources or other factors

98
Q

3 key factors of a population

A

1) population size - # of indiv of all ages alive in particular place
2) geographic range - how widely a population is spread out
3) population density - size/range = average density

99
Q

overdispersed (uniform) population

A

population more nearly uniformly distributed than would be predicted by chance

100
Q

exponential growth

A

the pattern of population increase that results when r is constant through time

101
Q

intraspecific competition

A

(members of same species compete) results in natural selection - limits ecological and evolutionary aspects of populations

102
Q

interspecific competition

A

(species vs other species) can result in increase or decrease in population size
- can determine size of species’ realized niche

103
Q

carrying capacity (k)

A

max # of individuals any habitat can support - interplay between resources and requirements for growth

104
Q

density-dependent factors

A

resources, predation, competition, infections

105
Q

density-independent factors

A

severe drought, cold

  • result in instantaneous drops in population size
  • occur at diff starting densities (does not matter)
106
Q

sampling methods (estimating pop size)

A

1) hoop + count/lay rope + count - used for sessile organisms
2) mark-and-recapture

107
Q

age structure

A

number of individuals within each age group of the pop studied

  • growing pop = pyramid structure
  • stable pop shows even dist of age classes
108
Q

demography

A

study of size, structure, distribution of populations over time, induces changes in response to: birth, aging, migration, death

109
Q

cohort

A

group defined as the individuals born at a given time

110
Q

survivorship

A

proportion of individuals from initial cohort that survive to each successive stage of life cycle

111
Q

patterns of survivorship

A

type I: (humans and large mammals) high throughout then drop at old age
type II: (birds and small mammals) linear-ish decline from the beginning
type III: (herbaceous plants) 2 step – 1) sharp drop 2) very flat slow decline lasts
–> those that survive first stage can age life longer

112
Q

r-strategists

A

species that produce large numbers of offspring but little support + resources (energy raising them)
– produce near r-rate, resources unpredictable
(represent an extreme reprod. strategy)

113
Q

k-strategists

A

species that produce relatively few young but invest considerable resources into their support (raise young)
- produce near carrying cap rate, resources predictable
(represent an extreme reprod. strategy)

114
Q

life history

A

the typical pattern of resource investment in each stage of a given species’ lifetime

115
Q

metapopulation

A

a large population made up of a group of independent populations connected by occasional immigrants

116
Q

patch

A

a bit of habitat that is separate from other bits by inhospitable environments that are difficult or risky for individuals to cross
- effects of habitat fragmentation on species within them –> narrow corridors between fragments/patches decreases probability of extinction

117
Q

island

A

any habitat patch that is surrounded by substantial expanse of inhospitable environment

118
Q

Theory of Island Biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson)

A

2 factors determine the number of species that can occupy a habitat island

1) island size - larger islands can support more colonists and extinction rate is lower - larger equil. # species for larger islands
2) distance - more distant islands have lower rates of colonization = lower equil # and species diversity

119
Q

Georgii Gause (pred/prey)

A

predators can hunt prey to extinction then die themselves of starvation

120
Q

Carl Huffaker (pred/prey)

A

predators and prey can coexist if refuges exist for prey to hide

121
Q

niche

A

ecological role played by a species
combo of habitat (abiotic) and population (biotic) - multidimensional habitat that allows a species to practice its way of life

122
Q

antagonistic interactions

A

one species benefits at expense of the other

1) competition ( - / - )
2) predation ( + / - )
3) parasitism ( + / - )

123
Q

terrestrial biomes

A

broad, ecologically uniform areas distinguished by their climate, soil, and characteristic species

124
Q

resource partitioning / niche partitioning

A

divergence within species whose niches overlap in order to minimize the overlap

  • diversify eating habits
  • temporal solution - grow and bloom at different times
125
Q

fundamental niche

A

full range of climate conditions and food resources that permits the individuals in a species to live

126
Q

realized niche

A

the actual range of habitats occupied by a species

127
Q

competition

A

an interaction in which use of a mutually needed resource by one individual or group of individuals lowers the availability of the resource for another individual or group (not always for food, can be space, etc)

128
Q

competitive exclusion

A

one species is prevented from a particular habitat or niche (foxes avoiding large coyotes)

129
Q

obligate mutualism

A

when one or both sides of a mutualism cannot survive without the other
(reinforced by natural selection)

130
Q

facultative mutualism

A

one or both can survive without the others

131
Q

commensalism

A

( + / o ) one species benefits w/ no effect on other

132
Q

community

A

set of all populations in a given place
populations within tied by interactions (spot in food web) and physical location - no 2 species have exact same geographical distribution even if same niche

133
Q

keystone species

A

species that influences the transfer of a a large proportion of biomass + energy from one trophic level to another OR when one species modifies its physical environment (otters maintain kelp forests)

134
Q

disturbance

A

severe physical impacts on habitat diversity reflects frequency and intensity of disturbance
diversity increases when disturbance is frequent or strong enough to limit competition but not limit the number that survive

135
Q

succession

A

process of species replacing each other in time

r-strategists pave for k-strategists

136
Q

climax community

A

one in which there is little further change in species composition - mature after succession

137
Q

ecosystem

A

community of organisms and the physical environment it occupies

138
Q

food web/ trophic pyramid

A

depicts movement of carbon through an ecosystem

1st trophic level: primary producers
2nd: primary consumers (herbivores)
3rd: secondary consumers (eat consumers)
top/apex predators: have few predators of their own
decomposers/detrivores: feed on dead bodies/plants and return CO2 and chemicals back to enviro - complete cycle

1000 kg –> 100 kg –> 10 kg –> 1 kg of eagle

139
Q

rates of primary production

A

influenced by light, water, and diversity

increased plant diversity = increased rates

140
Q

Liebig’s Law of the Minimum

A

primary production limited by the nutrient that is least available relative to its size

141
Q

mutualism

A

( + / + ) the benefits to both species outweigh the costs of participation

142
Q

runaway selection

A

male trait evolves through sexual selection by female - preference evolves, linked to male trait - can make trait costly and elaborate

143
Q

predator/prey communication

A

mechanical - spines
camouflage - avoid detection
aposematic coloration - warning signals
mimicry - mimic poisonous species coloring/patterns

144
Q

ecological levels

A 
organism (individual)
population
community
ecosystem
biosphere
145
Q

population ecology

A

studies how and why the size, range and density of a population changes over time

146
Q

population size equation

A

change in pop = (births - deaths) + (immigration - emigration)

147
Q

habitat loss worldwide

A 
tropical rainforest - 16 mil sq km --> 9 mil sq km
temperate broadleaf --> lost 94%
prarie (US) --> lost 97%
wetlands (US) --> lost 54%
coastal wetland in Cali --> Lost 75-90%
148
Q

edge effect

A

tropical rainforest

inside: clear floor, no wind, dark, humid, life in the canopy
edge: more light and wind, thick vegetation, new ecosystem of underbrush

allows for greater biodiversity

149
Q

bottom up + top down control

A

bottom up –> lack of primary producers / lower level organisms leads to starvation of upper level organisms

top down –> lack of predators leads to alternating growth patterns – increase next, decreases next, increases net, etc.

150
Q

Biomes

A 
tundra
alpine
taiga
temperate coniferous forest
deciduous forest
temperate grassland
desert
chaparral
savanna
rain forest
151
Q

tundra

A

north pole, small plants, low diversity
- coldest biome
minimal precipitation and evaporation

152
Q

alpine

A

similar to tundra but just under snow-line

- cold and windy

153
Q

taiga

A

cool moist forests - rain in summer

conifers and shrubs

154
Q

temperate coniferous forest

A

abundant precipitation along pac. coast enormous trees

  • interior North Am = less precipitation and colder winter
  • drought resistant conifers
155
Q

deciduous forest

A

moderate climate 15-20 tree species

maples, oaks, birches, etc.

156
Q

temperate grassland

A

fire and lack of precipitation - midwest

157
Q

desert

A

south of equator, interiors of continents

- low primary production, few centimeters of precipitation

158
Q

chaparral

A

limited precipitation, south of equator

herbs, shrubs, small trees, drought resistant eucalyptus, acacia, oak

159
Q

savanna

A

tall perennial grasses, east Africa, souther south am, Australia

  • animal diversity can be high
  • scattered trees and shrubs
160
Q

rain forest

A

moist, highly diverse
north and south of equator
> 300 species per hectare
high temp, heavy rain

161
Q

latitudinal diversity gradient

A

diversity peaks near equator (tropics), decreases toward poles

162
Q

hypothesized reasons for diversity

A
  • have been around for longer
  • spread of species = more room for others
  • narrow range of enviro variation
  • animal pollination

dominican amber fossils 20-30 mya, species interactions with hymenaea tree

163
Q

Anthropocene era

A

the time in which we live - reflects the significant impact of humans on the planet

humans growing exponentially

164
Q

ecological footprint

A

an attempt to quantify our individual claims on global resources by adding up all the energy, food, materials, an services we use and estimating how much land is required to provide those resources
- amt of land required to support individual at average standard of living

165
Q

human carbon activity and its effect

A

burning fossil fuels, deforestation,
–> global warming
CO2 as greenhouse gas - absorved heat energy and then emits it in all directions = heat trap
- climate change consensus: greenhouse effect is the principal cause of observed 20th century temp change
methane and H20 vapor also

166
Q

climate models

A

attempts to understand how climate works by fashioning equations that relate a simplified set of variables and interactions

  • predicts average 2-5C increase during 21st cent.
  • seawater salinity tests for rainfall
  • wet places will have more, dry places even less
167
Q

plant response to global warming

A

flowers flower earlier, migrate northward

- flowers that have gone extinct could not change flowering time as well

168
Q

plant evolution/ adaptation to climate change

A
  • can migrate
  • assisted migration: the deliberate transplantation of plant populations from existing habitats to new ones more favorable to growth
169
Q

ocean warming effects

A

1) coral bleaching - occurs when the symbiotic algae that feed the corals abandon them because of the temp
2) ocean acidification - CO2 levels in ocean lowers pH, more acidic = harder to form calcium chloride shells

170
Q

alternative energy sources

A

wind, sun, tidal, nuclear power

reforestation - actively removes CO2 from atm

171
Q

human fertilizer use

A

adds 150 mil tons/ years

only 10% ends up in food - rest runoff to lakes and sea

172
Q

eutrophication

A

great increase in populations of algae and cyanobacteria where bacteria feed on them

–> leads to O2 depletion by the ocean floor “dead-zones”

173
Q

decreasing diversity of everglades

A
  • only source of PO4 is through mining - cannot be synthesized
174
Q

Green Revolution

A

series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives that increased agricultural production

175
Q

corn and wheat production

A

needs to increase by 15%

earth loses .25% species every year 5000-25000 species

176
Q

effects of decreased diversity

A

leads to decreased productivity and resilience

177
Q

invasive species

A

can expand dramatically when introduced to new areas often with negative consequences for native species and ecosystems - decimates diversity

178
Q

evidence of climate change

A 
atmospheric and ocean warming
glaciers retreating (increases sea level) 28-98cm by 2100
ice packs thinning
migration of alpine tundra
coral bleaching
permafrost melting
pole-ward migration of species
climate variation
179
Q

salmon fishing

A
  • alaskan salmon - historically overfished, now regulated - limited entry permits, only few days, release juveniles etc
  • marine reserves
  • aquaculture - farmed fisheries
180
Q

greenhouse gases

A

1) CO2 - fossil fuels and deforestation
2) methane - agriculture and permafrost (new) 22x more absorption than CO2
3) nitrous oxide - industrial sources and nitrogen cycle, 300x more absorption than CO2
4) water vapor (clouds)
5) fluorinated gase (CFCs)

181
Q

weather vs climate

A

weather: short-term fluctuations
climate: long-term trends

182
Q

viviparous

A

embryo develops inside female connected by placenta

183
Q

oviparous

A

embryos develop in an egg case external to mother

184
Q

aquatic biomes

A

> 70% of Earth

  • freshwater: lakes, ponds, rivers, streams
  • marine (estuary, coral reef, kelp forest, rocky intertidal, open ocean)
185
Q

biodiversity hotspots

A

areas with the highest concentrations of Earth’s biodiversity

  • kelp forests
  • coral reefs
  • tropical rainforests
186
Q

ecosystem stability

A

resilience - ability of an ecosystem to resist or recover quickly from disturbance – supporting approx same species before and after disturbance

  • more diversity and trophic levels = higher stability

LS 1 (3 decks)

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