Final - Amanda Flashcards
Steroid Hormones
- Hormones are non-polar and can diffuse through membranes. 2. Regulation is through synthesis. Signal by binding to intracellular or “nuclear receptors”. 3. Often are modified by enzymes at target cells. Example: Testosterone is converted by 5-alpha reductase to the more potent form DHT (dihydrotestosterone). Androgens converted to estrogen through enzyme aromatase.
Types of steroid hormones
- androgens: androstenedione, DHEA, testosterone, DHT. 2. Estrogens: estrone, estriol, estradiol 3. progestogens: progesterone
Estrogen is inhibiting gonadotropin secretion (negative feedback effect).
B and E. During dominant follicle maturation of follicular phase and during the luteal phase
Estrogen stimulates gonadotropin secretion (positive feedback effect).
C. LH surge and ovulation phase.
This time corresponds to dominant follicle selection.
B. During growth phase days 7-14
This time corresponds to the first day of menstruation.
A. Menstrual phase.
Granulosa cells proliferate in response to FSH only, not LH.
B and also A.
Granulosa cells respond to both FSH and LH.
C
Negative feedback by bothestrogen and progesterone prevents ovulation.
E. secretory phase of uterine cycle and luteal phase of hormonal.
Corpus luteum is degenerating
F
Gonadotropin levels rise due to release from negative feedback inhibition.
A and F. In uterine cycle is menstual phase. and is Follicular phase in hormonal.
Progesterone promotes secretion by endometrial glands
E. secretory phase of uterine cycle
Estrogen promotes proliferation in the endometrium
B and C. proliferative stage of uterine cycle.
This time corresponds to rupture of the dominant follicle.
D. LH surge and ovulation day 14.
Disfunction in meiosis
nondisjunction is when chromosome doesn’t separate at one of the divisions and leads to the disorder aneuploidy. Can occur at first or second division. Trisomy 21 causes Down Syndrome (3 chromosome 21). Older women carry greater risk for aneuploidy.
Karotyping Fetus
Karotype looks at all chromosomes in cells.
Karyotyping requires fetal cells be obtained by amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, and both methods are invasive and carry a risk for miscarriage or infection.
New method that is non-invasive is cell-free fetal DNA analysis, can be done earlier than the others and only involves a blood draw.
Hormone regulation : pulsitile secretion of GhnR
Gonadotropins are FSH and LH. travel in general circulation to stimulate gonadal hormone production.
Remember that steroid and gonadotropins have negative feedback effects.
Hormone regulation: continuous GnRH
pulsatile GnRH stimulates gonadotropins.
However, continuous GnRH inhibits gonadotropins. Leuprolide is a GnRH agonist which causes continuous GnRH and is used to turn off reproductive function. Used in precocious puberty, androgen depravation therapy (prostate cancer), cycle control (IVF).
GNrH secretion during all stages of life
GnRH is master regulator. High secretion occurs before birth during sexual differentiation. GnRH is low during childhood and high again after puberty.
leptin
Since 1800’s mean age of menarche has dropped. Relates to nutrition. Leptin is a part of a negative feedback loop to control adiposity. Obese mutant mouse fails to make leptin and suffers from hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Low levels of gonadotropins due to lack of GnRH levels. Leptin is permissive for GnRH secretion occurring at puberty. In absolute leptin deficiency (obese mouse) have infertility. Back in the 1800’s nutrition was poor and leptin secretion was low so puberty occurred much later.
Human examples of hypoleptinemia in women. Very very low body fat level with low leptin secretion and they experience amenorrhea.
Route of sperm
Sperm develop in testes in seminiferous tubules. Move to epididymis to ductus deferens (2), to ejaculatory duct (2- contains sperm and secretion of seminal vesicle) then finally to the urethra. Movement of sperm along the vas deferens depends upon smooth muscle contraction.
Semen composition
Male semen is spermatozoa and seminal fluid. Seminal fluid is from bulbourethral glands, prostrate glands and seminal vesicles (2 of them).
Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy
is the enlargement of the prostate gland with age (BPH).
Causes urinary symptoms such as difficulty in urination and painful urination.
Treated with alpha-adrenergic antagonists, Tamsulosin through relaxation of smooth muscle in urethra. Also have 5-alpha reductase inhibitors, finasteride, that prevent conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone.
Prostate cancer
tends to be slow growing. Effect of increased PSA testing has not affected mortality of prostate cancer. In many cases the best treatment is to just leave the prostate alone.
Spermatogenesis
spermatogonia (diploid) cells undergo mitosis. Differentiation into primary spermatocyte. Meiosis I and II to spermatids and differentiation into spermatozoa. Development of spermatid to spermatozoon involves formation of flagella. Acrosome in head of sperm contains digestive enzymes and is important in fertilization.
Leydig cells
make testosterone. Located outside seminiferous tubule
Sertoli cells
Located in seminiferous tubule. Wrap around developing germ cells.
Functions: create blood-testis barrier with tight junctions, nourishing paracrine signaling required for spermatogenesis, have receptors for FSH and testosterone (necessary for spermatogenesis), produce binding protein (androgen-binding protein), and produce hormones (inhibin involved in negative feedback and mullerian inhibiting substance).
Tight junctions in semineferous tubules
create basal and central compartment. Central compartment has meiosis and contains spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoon. Basal compartment undergoing mitosis and contains spermatogonium.
Male hormonal regulation
Leydig cells: binds and responds to LH to produce testosterone. Testosterone stimulates sertoli cells.
sertoli cells: binds to and responds to FSH to stimulate spermatogenesis and inhibin (negative feedback to anterior pituitary).
Negative feedback inhibition.
Erection
vascular function. smooth muscle relaxation. Fill with blood and become engorged through relaxation of smooth muscle. Maintenance of erection is through compression of veins.
Corpus cavernosa: two. vascular spaces.
Corpus spungium: behind and form gland at bottom
Autonomic control of erection
NANC (nonadrenergic, noncholinergic) neurons: release nitric oxide as neurotransmitter. Smooth muscle relaxation (through cGMP) to dilate arteries (through lower of Ca++) and causes erect penis.
sympathetic neurons: release norepinephrine as neurotransmitter. Smooth muscle contraction constricts arteries and penis is flaccid.
Erectile disfunction
problems with attaining or sustaining an erection. Oral drugs are phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Phosphodiesterase cleaves cGMP which normally causes smooth muscle relaxation and erection. Works through the NANC pathway.
PDE inhibitors include sildenafil, vardenafil, tadalafil, avanafil. Don’t cause an erection, just potentiate the affects of arousal.
Ejaculation
release of semen.
Semen first moves into urethra which involves contraction of smooth muscle around ducts (vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, glands and internal urethral sphincter which prevents semen from entering bladder) and depends on sympathetic input.
Release of semen from penis involves sympathetic efferents stimulating contraction of smooth muscle in the urethra and contraction of skeletal muscle in pelvic floor.
Sexually indiferent stage
(week 6)
Period of time where the embryo either develops male or female structures.
Wolffian (mesonephric) ducts give rise to male gonad structures and are more medial, and Mullerian (paramesonpehric) ducts gives rise to female gonad structures and are more lateral.
Sexual determination for males
depends on presence of Y chromosome. The Y chromosome has a sex-determining region called SRY which initiates testis development. The absence of the SRY region directs the gonads to develop as ovaries.
Leydig cells make testosterone which promotes Wolffian duct development. The Wolffian duct then differentiates to form the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, and ejaculatory duct.
Sertoli cells make MIS (Mullerian Inhibiting Substance) which causes the Mullerian ducts to regress/degenerate.