FINAL Flashcards
a definition of the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured
operational definition
Give an operational definition for measuring employee satisfaction.
Rating of job satisfaction from 1 (not satisfied) to 9 (extremely satisfied)
Give an operational definition for measuring intelligence.
Score on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
What is the primary method of survey research?
questionnaires
What does survey research aim to measure?
associations between variables
a non-experimental method of research using a prepared set of written questions for self-completion
questionnaire
What does experimental research aim to measure?
the relations between the independent variable that is manipulated (cause) and the dependent variable or resultant change in behavior (effect)
experiments that examine the effects of a variable that is not directly under the researcher’s control (student age or gender) on outcomes such as achievement or performance level
quasi-experimental designs
in an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter as a means of determining cause-and-effect relations
independent variable
in an experiment, the variable that is measured to demonstrate whether its value was affected by the independent variable
dependent variable
What 3 conditions must be met before we can make a causal inference?
1) covariation
2) time-order relationship
3) elimination of plausible alternative causes
How is covariation measured in an experiment?
there is a relationship between the independent and dependent variables
How is a time-order relationship measured in an experiment?
the presumed cause precedes the effect
How do you eliminate plausible alternative causes in an experiment?
by using control techniques, you rule out other possible causes for the outcome
- a factor other than the independent variable that may cause a result (third variable)
- provides an alternative explanation for any observed difference in the dependent variable
confounding variable
what is present when the independent variable of interest and a different, extraneous variable are allowed to covary (go together)?
confounding variable
What does IRB stand for?
Institutional Review Board
a committee that is responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems
IRB
Why do we have in IRB?
to protect human subjects involved in research
What 4 things is the IRB looking for (what critical question are they asking) when they are evaluating whether a study can proceed or not?
1) risks are minimized
2) benefits outweigh the risks
3) research carried out in a fair manner
4) informed consent procedure is adequate
an approach to the study of psychology which focuses entirely on observable events and the behaviors associated with them, without referring to the mind and emotions
behaviourism
What did Pavlov discover with his dog experiment?
classical conditioning
the learning of an association between 2 stimuli, the first of which (the conditioned stimulus) predicts the occurrence of the second (the unconditioned stimulus)
classical conditioning
What did Skinner discover with his rat experiment?
operant conditioning
the learning of a specific behavior or response because that behavior has certain consequences
operant conditioning
How does positive reinforcement work?
- You behave in a certain way that results in a reward, and as a result, you are more likely to repeat that behavior (presence of pleasant stimulus)
- example: A father gives his daughter candy (reinforcing stimulus) for cleaning up toys (behavior)
How does negative reinforcement work?
- you behave in a certain way that results in the removal of something unpleasant, and as a result you are more likely to repeat that behavior (absence of an unpleasant stimulus)
- example: Kaelyn honks the car horn when the light turns green (behavior) so the car in front of her (aversive stimulus) will move.
A consequence that follows a behavior so you do the behavior less often in the future
punishment
What is the end result of reinforcement?
increase the behavior
What is the end result of punishment?
decrease the behavior
How does positive punishment work?
- a negative consequence is presented after an undesired behavior is exhibited
- example: A child picks his nose during class (behavior) and the teacher reprimands him (aversive stimulus) in front of his classmates.
How does negative punishment work?
- a certain desired stimulus/item is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited
example: A child fights with her brother (behavior) and has her favorite toy taken away (reinforcing stimulus removed).
a process of reinforcing a series of responses that increasingly resemble the desired final behavior
shaping
learning through imitation
observational learning
a theory focused on how children construct their knowledge and understanding based on their experiences; views child as mini-scientist
Piaget’s cognitive theory
when there’s an inconsistency between the learner’s cognitive structure and the thing being learned, the child will reorganize his/her already existing structure
accommodation
process of matching external reality (new information or experiences) to an existing cognitive structure
assimilation
a state experienced by a child when encountering new experiences that do not map onto his or her existing schemes
disequilibrium
a child’s ability to understand that objects still exist after they are no longer in sight
object permanence
the child understands that changing the form of a substance or object does not change its amount, overall volume, or mass
conservation
the ability to recognize relationships among various things in a serial order
transitivity
a child’s inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view
egocentrism
the distance between what a child can do unaided and what he or she can achieve with the guidance and support of a more competent other
zone of proximal development
the way in which a child’s efforts to master a new or challenging task can be supported in a flexible and contingent way by adults or more competent partners
scaffolding
what are the main points of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory?
- social interaction influences cognitive development
- biological and cultural development do not occur in isolation
- language plays a major role in cognitive development
Describes cognitive development as changes in processing of information
Information-Processing theory
what is the capacity of sensory memory?
very low
what is the duration of sensory memory?
2-3 seconds or less
what is the capacity of working memory?
limited
what is the duration of working memory?
less than a minute
what is the capacity of long term memory?
unlimited
what is the duration of long term memory?
long (permanent)
What is the role of attention in the information-processing theory?
taking notice and observing
the process of remembering information stored in long-term memory
retrieval
allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from short-term or long-term memory; the first stage of memory
encoding
repeating information over and over again
rehearsal
forming associations between information one is trying to learn with information already stored in memory
elaboration
techniques a person can use to help them improve their ability to remember something; a simple shortcut that helps us associate the information we want to remember with an image, a sentence, or a word
mnemonics
the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units that are easier to retain in short-term memory
chunking
the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks) that are easier to retain in short-term memory
testing effect
we learn material more effectively and easily when we study it several times spaced out over a longer time span, rather than trying to learn it in a short period of time
spacing effect
- The ability to judge well, to understand well, to reason well
- the ability to solve problems, to adapt to new environments, to learn from new experiences
intelligence
Who developed the Hierarchal Theory of Intelligence?
Cattell
the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience
crystallized intelligence
the ability to find and solve novel, abstract problems
fluid intelligence
who proposed the single-factor theory of intelligence?
Spearman
How does Spearman view intelligence?
it is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed
who developed the primary mental abilities theory?
Thurstone
how does Thurstone view intelligence?
not as a single general ability, but as seven different primary mental abilities:
1) verbal comprehension
2) reasoning
3) perceptual speed
4) numerical ability
5) word fluency
6) associative memory
7) spatial visualization
How does Sternberg view intelligence?
“successful intelligence” is comprised of three separate, though interrelated, abilities:
1) analytic intelligence
2) creative intelligence
3) practical intelligence
Who developed the theory of multiple intelligences?
Gardner
How does Garner view intelligence?
there are eight relatively independent human intelligences based on skills and abilities valued in different cultures:
1) Visual-spatial
2) Verbal-linguistic
3) Bodily-kinesthetic
4) Logical-mathematical
5) Interpersonal
6) Musical
7) Intrapersonal
8) Naturalistic
How do entity theorists view intelligence?
it is fixed and stable
how do incremental theorists view intelligence?
it is malleable/changeable
who developed the idea of the two implicit theories of intelligence known as “entity” and “incremental”?
Dweck
mental steps or “components” used to solve problems
analytic intelligence
use of experience in ways that foster insight
creative intelligence
ability to read and adapt to the contexts of everyday life
practical intelligence
What is IDEA?
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
what are the 6 major principles of IDEA?
1) zero reject
2) non-discriminatory identification and evaluation
3) Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
4) Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
5) procedural safeguards
6) parent and student participation and shared decision making
Which two biological systems are activated in response to stress?
1) Sympathetic Adrenal Medullary System (SAM)
2) Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA)
The biological response to stress is _________.
adaptive
The risk of what disease is increased with repeated activation of the stress response system? Through what?
cardiovascular disease; atherosclerosis
What three things can sustained activation of the stress response do to the body?
1) equal memory and learning impairments
2) suppress immune responses
3) change brain architecture
a range of negative perceptions and reactions experienced when pressure becomes too much
stress
the ways in which the HPA axis, the autonomic nervous system, the cardiovascular system and the immune system work together to help the body adapt to stress
allostasis
the body is exposed to chronic stressors resulting in physical changes such as increased release of stress hormones and changes in immune system functioning
allostatic load
a physiological response to stress leading to the release of adrenalin and noradrenalin to put the body on alert
sympathetic adrenal medullary system (SAM)
What response is related to the sympathetic medullary system response?
fight or flight
a physiological response to stress leading to the production of the stress hormone known as cortisol
hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal axis system (HPA)
the build-up of fatty plaques in the lining of the blood vessels which leads to narrowing of the arteries
atherosclerosis
What are the 5 key dimensions of personality in the Big Five Personality Model?
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
What traits are associated with openness in the Big Five?
imagination, feelings, actions, ideas
What traits are associated with conscientiousness in the Big Five?
competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, goal-driven
What traits are associated with extroversion in the Big Five?
sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression
What traits are associated with agreeableness in the Big Five?
cooperative, trustworthy, good-natured
What traits are associated with neuroticism in the Big Five?
tendency toward unstable emotions