Final Flashcards
Attentional Bottleneck
- Attention acts as a filter, blocking unimportant stimuli and focusing cognitive resources on only the most important events
- protects the brain from being overwhelmed by the world
Shadowing tasks
-Task where participant is asked to focus attention to one of the two stimuli and repeat the material presented in attended ear
Divided attention task
- a task in which the Participant is asked to focus attention on two or more stimuli simultaneously
- confirm that attention is a limited resource.
Early selection of attention
Unattended information is filtered out right away, at the level of initial sensory input.
(I.e. Shadowing experiments)
-before semantic and even basic perceptual analysis
Late selection of attention
- After semantic analysis has occurred
- important but unattended stimuli may undergo substantial unconscious processing up to level of semantic meaning and awareness before capturing attention (I.e. Hearing your name at a crowded bar)
Neural evidence for early selection
Larger N1 is observed in ERP for the attended ear of a dichroic listening task (where stimulus is input in both ears)
When late selection occurs
When perceptual load in attended channel is low, semantic processing In the unattended channel is possible
Feature search
Basic features like—motion, color and basic form—pop out.
-Can be processed before attention comes on line and before you process meaning of situation
-early attention
Conjunction search
Search for item based on two or more features (I.e. Size and color)
Requires attention because these different features are processed by different regions in the brain
Feature integration theory (FIT)
Theory that attention is the “glue” that binds features together so that objects can be perceived as a unit and selected for further processing
Illusory conjunctions
Mislicatiins of features can occur when spatial attention is impaired
-distracted/ poor visual conditions
2 ways to move attention
Covertly
Overtly
Covertly
Without repositioning the sensory organs
-uses Pulvinar (thalamus)
Overtly
Reposition the sensory organ
-uses superior colliculus (midbrain)
2 ways to guide attention
Endogenous
Exogenous
Endogenous
Directed voluntarily by internal goals of perceived
- top down
- symbolic cueing tasks (use arrows/ meaningful symbols to guide attentions)
- slower onset but can be sustained
Exogenous
Drawn reflexively by information in the environment (involuntary)
- bottom up
- peripheral cueing tasks (use sensory stimulus to grab attention)
- faster onset but diminishes quickly
Valid cue (Correct guidance= benefit)
Benefits reaction time ONLY if presented Briefly Before the target
Inhibition of Return
If there is a delay between cue and target, reaction time is slowed compared to invalid cue’s reaction time
Invalid cues (Incorrect guidance= cost)
Cue is not in the same place as the target
-slower to respond than neutral cue
Neural activity
Attention boosts neural activity Associated with the features or area of space your attending to
Dosal frontoparietal system
Endogenous–voluntary control
- cognitive control
- too down
Intraparietal sukcus (IPS)
Involved in voluntary top-down control of attention
Ventral temporoparietal system
Novelty detection
-Right side is dominant in attentional orienting
Temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
Role in shifting attention to a new location after target onset
Asymmetric attention control
Right hemisphere: takes care of both sides
Left hemisphere: only takes care of right side
Hemispatial neglect
Neglect to the side of space opposite of Lesion
-most commonly follows Right superior parietal damage—neglect left side of space
Balint’s syndrome
-bilateral damage to parietal lobe
- difficulty directing attention overtly–eye movements
- optic ataxia (cannot appropriately reach for things)
- simultagnosia
Simultagnosia
- restriction of attention
- can attend to only one object at at time
Simultaneous extinction
Find out
Executive functions
Carried out by prefrontal cortex
Taxonomy of executive functions
Establish and modify rules:
- initiate new rules
- inhibit inappropriate rules
- shift among rules
- relate rules
Contextual Control
-monitor whether rules are working
Working memory
-space for maintaining rules and info needed to execute rules
Dorsolateral PFC
Important for dealing with novel or ambiguous COGNITIVE decisions
- develops new, inhibits old and tests rules
- modifies behavior based on feedback
Maintain mental effort toward pursuit of goals even when distracted
Damage to dlPFC
-Perseveration—get stuck: unable to inhibit old rules
- no long term goals
- can cause apathy or abulia
Dysexecutive syndrome
Collection of deficits associated with dl PFC damage
-can be tested with Wisconsin card sorting test
Apathy
Lack of interest or concern
Ventromedial/orbitofrontal
Important for dealing with novel or ambiguous SOCIAL and EMOTIONAL decisions
- evaluate meaning and appropriateness of possible responses in social context
- infer mental states of others
- integrate physiological info (gut feelings) into decision making
Damage to vmPFC
- inappropriate affect, aggression, inability to control sexual impulses
- impaired insight into self and others
Disinhibition Syndrome
Collection of deficits associated with vmPFC
-cannot judge self conscious emotions like guilt, jealousy, embarrassment
Severest case= sociopathy
Sociopathy
Engage in aggressive acts with little remorse and little care for others
Confabulation
- damage to vmPFC
- retrieve false information, but go with it and try to create an autobiographical narrative
- “honest lying”
Abulia
Lack of ability to act decisively or make decisions
- act slowly and are distracted easily
- difficulty maintaining attention
Frontopolar
Portion of lateral PFC important for RELATING rules to create higher order, abstract models of the world (I.e. What if)
- plan of larger goals with Su goals
- complex relational and integrative processes
- holding info seeking goals with long term rewards, not short term
Environmental Dependency Syndrome
Damage to anterior (polar) and medial regions
-behaviors initiated by external environment rather than internal goals
- lack insight of causes and consequences of actions
- stuck in here and now, not good at longer abstract goals
Imitation
Copy what they see
-physical, vocal, etc
Utilization behavior
Lack of top down influence, so when they see an object, they use it
-relies on external stimuli to trigger behavior
Raven’s Matrices IQ test
Requires integrating multiple rules
-like sudoku
-3x3 or more complex table with different pictures following different rules
Person is asked to complete last box
Tower of London
Requires multiple Su goals
Dorsomedial and Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)
Monitor and allocate resources for control of behavior
- detect mismatch between internal top-down expected/ desired outcome and bottom-up external info
- communicates with lateral PFC to indicate how much executive control is needed to keep behavior on track
The stroop task
-read words (that spell a color) and are in a specific color
- word and color may be incongruent
- incongruency activates ACC and relates to how much you slow down and adjust (monitoring)
Ventral ACC
Emotional
-More stimulate in ppl with depression
Damage to ACC
Does not impair performance on Stroop task
-ACC is correlated (no causation) to task
ERN
Error related negativity
(ERP is negative)
- follows mistaken action:
1. Motor mov’t that a participant realized is incorrect
2. Feedback indicating action did not result in desired outcome
Amplitude of potential is positively related to engagement of control processes
Working memory
- temporarily maintains and manipulates information not currently available to the senses
- necessary for achieving short term behavioral objectives
From perception to memory
Encode (take in from senses) –store — retrieve
- bottom up = transforming experience into memory
- top-down = using past memories to shape experience
Models of working memory (WM)
Baddeley’s Model
Cowan’s Model
Baddeley’s Models
Storage of WM is separate from storage of Long term memory (LTM)
Separate buffers for different types of info (i.e. Episodic, visuospatial, etc.)
Cowan’s Model
No separate WM storage
WM is a spotlight of info in LTM
-central executive can manipulate a small subset of activated representations at a time
Manipulation of WM
- dorsolateral anterior PFC
- compare and group info
Maintenance of WM
Initial retrieval of info
Ventral posterior PFC
-left vlPFC: verbal info
-right vlPFC: nonverbal/spatial info
Primacy effect
Superior performance seen in a a memory task for tens at the start of a list
-attributed to LTM
Recency effect
The superior performance seen in a memory task for items at the end of the list
-attributed to short term memory…aka WM
Amnesia disrupts Serial Position Effect
- intact recency effect Bc WM is normal
- impaired primacy effect Bc amnesia affects transfer of info to LTM, but leaves WM intact
Types of Long term Memory
Declarative
Nondeclarative
Declarative
Things you know that you can tell others
- past we can represent using symbolic format (I.e. Language)
- tested with EXPLICIT tests: ask them to think back and remember
- involves some level of CONSCIOUS awareness in process of retrieval
Nondeclarative (procedural)
Things you know that you can show by doing (I.e. Riding a bike)
- memory inferred by a change in performance due to previous experience (incremental learning)—->faster and more accurate
- tested with IMPLICIT tests
- does NOT involve CONSCIOUS recollection of the past events that led to the change
2 types of declarative
Episodic
Semantic
Episodic memories
Include specific info about the context (time and place) in which info was learned –like encoding episode
-examples: autobiographical memories, personal events
-uses hippocampus and prefrontal
Semantic
Memory associated with recalling facts
-example: word meanings, non-personal, general facts and events
-doesn’t involve prefrontal
Before consolidation
Need hippocampus AND cortical ares
Post consolidation
Cortical areas ONLY
Process of episode
- Engage in perceptual processing (v1)
- Hippocampus/ medial temporal lobe (MTL) bind together the cortical memory traces at encoding and reconstruct the memory at retrieval
- Using few retrieval cues, hippocampus can reactivate the whole memory trace
Memory retrieval
Construct memories from parts we can retrieve
false memories
Memories that are partly or wholly inaccurate but are accepted as real by person remembering it
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Result of alcoholism–and poor diet
- amnesia and confabulation
- can see some recovery of function
3 types of Nondeclarative
Skill/Habit
Conditioning
Priming
Skill/Habits
Gradual improvement in performance with practice
Uses: Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum
Classical conditioning
Learning associations between events
Uses: cerebellum
Priming
Improvement in processing a stimulus as a result of having seen it before
2 types of Priming
Perceptual
Conceptual
Perceptual priming
Identification is faster the 2nd time
-requires less mental effort to process 2nd time: decreased occipital temporal cortex
-priming based on visual form of words
Needs: occipitotemporal Cortex
Conceptual priming
Word or picture identification is faster when semantically related item was previously shown
-priming based on word meaning
Needs: left lateral temporal PFC
Patient HM
Bilateral removal of anterior medial temporal lobe with hippocampus
Extensive Anterograde Amnesia
Cannot store NEW declarative information (loss of memories after cause of Amnesia)
-Bc of removal of hippocampus from both sides
Retrograde Amnesia
Loss of memories before what caused Amnesia
Features of Amnesia (from MTL damage)
- Impaired encoding to LTM, but no problem with simple WM
- Impaired retrieval of memories encoded RIGHT before damage, less trouble retrieving memories encoded more “remotely”
- Impaired declarative memory (explicit) is impaired, but nondeclarative (implicit) is fine
Ribot’s Law of Retrograde Amnesia
Memories encoded right before damage = more likely to be lost than those encoded much earlier
-suggest that consolidated memories become independent of MTL over time —only require Cortex
WM changes
Rapid changes in electrical activity of the brain in form of Reverberating Circuit (a self exciting loop of neurons)
No structural changes
LTM changes
reverberating Circuit remains active long enough—structural changes in those cells will result in Long term strengthening of connections
Yes Structural Changes
Reverberating Circuit
PFC sends too down excitation signal to posterior representation
Posterior regions send message back to PFC about how excited they are
Cellular Model of Memory
Hebbian Learning
-when axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B AND repeatedly takes part in exciting it to threshold….some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells….such that when cell A fires, response at Neuron B is potentiated
Potentiated
Stable and Stronger EPSP response
Long term Potentiation (LTP)
A stable and long term increase in the effectiveness of one neuron to stimulate another, following a period of repeated strong stimulation of that neuron by the other
-same amount of input now results in increased response
Tetanus
Period of repeated strong stimulation
Three principles of LTP
Cooperativity
Associativity
specificity
Cooperativity
Weak input + Strong excitatory input —–> potentiation
Associtativity
A neuron that is weakly active at the same time as stronger stimulation takes place will also have its synapse strengthened
-link weaker concepts to stronger ones
Specificity
A neuron NOT active at the same time as stringer stimulation WILL NOT be affected
Stages of LTP
Glutamate and two channels: AMPA and NMDA
1.
Release of Glutamate opens AMPA receptor channels to allow influx of Na+ ions to depolarize membrane
More Glu = more deplorization
2.
More depolarization causes NMDA to release Mg 2+ blocking the gate
Next time Glu released—-> open NMDA channels for Ca 2+ influx
3.
Ca 2+ activates 2nd messenger systems that initiate pre and post synaptic changes
Two phases of LTP
Early phase
late Phase
Early Phase
WM —–> intermediate LTM
- LTP for minutes/hours/days
- increase post synaptic sensitivity to Glu
- increase pre synaptic chance of Glu release
-remodels existing proteins
NO protein synthesis
Late Phase
Intermediate LT—-> Permanent LT
- LTP over weeks/months
- NEW protein synthesis
- allows changes to shape neuron
Use it or lose it
Lose it = Neural Darwinism
Cells that Fire together, wire together
Cells that don’t fire together, DIE
Emotion and memory
Amygdala is close to hippocampus. Emotional responses and experiences thus aid memory
Dementia
Type of Alzheimer’s
Drastic failure of cognitive ability, including memory failure and loss of orientation
Semantic dementia
Aka Frontotemporal Dementia
Lateral (inferior) temporal lobe
-progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of semantic memory in both verbal and nonverbal domains
Three models of emotion
Categorical theories
Dimensional theories
Component process theories
Categorical theories
Basic vs complex emotions
Basic emotions
Innate, pan cultural, evolutionarily old
-Examples: anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise
Complex emotions
Learned, culturally and socially shaped
-examples: pride, embarrassment, guilt
Disgust
Involves insula
Fear
Involves amygdala
Dimensional theories
Arousal (intensity) vs. valence (pleasantness)
Low pleasantness= negative emotion
High pleasantness = positive emotion
Arousal
Involves amygdala when stimulus is presented subliminally
Valence
Left lateral PFC = positive emotions—serve more linguistic and social functions
Right lateral PFC = negative emotions —- tend to be more reactive and survival related
Component process theories
Organize emotion by type of cognitive and aage rice processes they invoke
Amygdala
Particularly involved in fear
-activated by stimuli inducing fear when presented Supraliminally (when you are aware of it)
Responds more broadly to + or - arousing stimuli when stimuli are presented quickly (subliminally)
Low road
Quick and dirty
Quick: direct route for sensory information to thalamus —> amygdala
Dirty: provides only outline of sensory info-low resolution
High road
Slow and sure
Slow: goes to thalamus, then through primary sensory Cortex and beyond before reaching amygdala
Sure: all fine detailed conscious identification of sensory info
Low road input
Olfactory info = direct to amygdala
Amygdala receives direct info about internal states from hippocampus, brainstem, ACC and orbital Cortex
Low road feedback
Can feedback to the high road to enhance processing
- vigilance: primes high route to pay attention
- emotion depends modulation of visual processing
Modern view of amygdala
Arousal detector
- helps orient attentional resources towards relevant stimuli
- important in cases of uncertainty – allocate attention in order to resolve uncertainty
Fear conditioning
Pair an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus to change the UCR to the UCS into a conditioned response (which in this case is fear)
-CS = something naturally initiating fear
Areas involved in fear conditioning
Double dissociation:
-amygdala IS necessary for fear conditioning (not declarative memory)
-hippocampus IS NOT necessary for basic fear conditioning (But is for declarative memory)
Contextual fear conditioning
When fear is associated with specific places or circumstances in addition to specific cues
-involves hippocampus too!
Extinction
Present the conditioned stimulus without the UCS and the CR fear will stop
Brain area involved in Extinction
Involves vmPFC
- inhibits the amygdala
- role in reversal learning
Emotional preservation
- Due to failure to extinguish fear response Bc cannot let stimuli go
- can cause PTSD and Phobias
Decrease vmPFC —> increase amygdala activity
Memory modulation stimulus
Amygdala enhances consolidation of emotionally arousing declarative memories
- Bc amygdala has direct output to MTL–so activity in amygdala and hippocampus are coupled during encoding
- release of STRESS hormones enhance influence of amygdala on hippocampus—max impact after coding
Yerkes-Dodson curve
Inverted U
- fear/dress and memory
- memory performance is max when fear/stress based arousal is not too little or too much
Emotion regulation
Conscious and unconscious attempts to influence the intensity, duration and quality of emotional experience
3 methods of emotion regulation
Antecedent
Reactive
Mindfulness
Antecedent
Generate new, adaptive responses IN ANTICIPATION OF emotion elicitors
2 antecedent types
Situation selection
Cognitive reappraisal
Situation selection
Avoiding emotional encounters altogether
Cognitive reappraisal
Interpret the meaning of an elicitor in order to alter its emotional impact
Reactive
Modify existing thoughts and reactions AFTER they unfold
-expressive suppression
Expressive suppression
- not show how you are feeling
- mask facial expression
Mindfulness
Acceptance and nonjudgmental appraisal of experience to “let it go” and not perserverate
Top down regulation of emotion
Up regulating –emphasizes the emotion
Down regulating –suppress emotion (decrease response to it)
Up regulation brain activity
Increased activity in right amygdala and Medial orbitofrontal Cortex (MOFC)
Reappraisal
Decreased: amygdala and MOFC activity
Increased: lateral PFC and fro to parietal attention network
- dlPFC involved in cognitive control of emotions
Perceiving self
Self reflexive thought
Interception
Embodiment
Self reflexive thought
Self centered:
- You are an object
- separate from others
- subject to objective consideration
- evaluate your strength compared to personal goals, other ppl, social norms
Brain areas for default mode
Involves MEdial areas
- medial PFC
- posterior ACC
- medial parietal
-external info (thinking of others) inhibits activity in this region
Default mode
When nothing in external world grabs our attention, we DEFAULT to thinking about ourselves
Interoception
- internal perception
- self awareness of internal bodily sensations like pain, disgust, heart rate
Region involved in interoception
Insula
Rostral ACC
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Insula
(Inside the Sullivan fissure)
-able to recognize signals in themselves and others Bc of insula
Rostral ACC
Involvement in pain
Emotional attention and awareness
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Integrate physiological info (gut feelings) into decision making
Embodiment
The sense of being localized within one’s own body
Region involved in Embodiment
Temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
TPJ
- important for understanding where you are in space
- stimulation can cause “out of body” experiences
- also affected In hemispatial neglect
Perceiving others
Social referencing
Joint attention
Social categorization
Social referencing
Interpreting the facial, vocal, and body expressions of others to determine how to act in novel or ambiguous situation
Joint attention
Use gaze direction and head/body position to figure out what someone is looking at
-important to learn info
Joint attention brain area
Superior temporal Sulcus (STS)
STS
Changeable aspects of faces
-eye gaze, expression, lip mov’t,
biological motion = posterior STS
-more active when actions violate expectations—more attention when given mixed signals
Social categorization
Perception of identifying features in order to form impressions and place people into social categories
- automatic
- controlled
Automatic
Fast and implicit
- useful to rapidly identify friends vs foe
- implicit outgroup stereotyping can cause social injustice
Controlled
Slower and explicit
- used to regulate and suppress automatic reactions
- cognitive reappraisal
Reappraisal of automatic stereotypes
amygdala not related to EXPLICIT measure of bias
-less stereotyping when think of ppl vs group stereotypes
view face for longer
- increase dl, vl PFC and dorsal ACC activity
- decrease amygdala
Theory of mind (ToM)
Ability to represent and infer mental states (desires, beliefs, and intentions) of others (even when different from yours)
ToM involves
Attributions and reasoning about own mental states
AND about other’s mental states
-understand and predict behavior of others
Even when others may have False Beliefs (and misunderstand a situation)
-allows you to project intentions different from your own internal beliefs to manipulate others behaviors —Deception
Classic ToM test
False beliefs (sally basket and Anne box) test about where marble is
Autistic kids fail test
ToM brain areas
Temporal pole
TPJ and STS
Paracingulate Cortex
Temporal pole
Language, semantic memory and social meaning
TPJ And STS
Embodiment,
biological motion,
detecting direction of eye gaze in others,
facial expressions
Paracingulate Cortex
Ventral regions involved in attention to emotions
Not the same region involved in stroop task
Empathy
- emotional
- faster and more automatic when making inferences about SIMILAR others
Activates vmPFC
Sympathy
- cognitive
- slower and more intentional when thinking about dissimilar others
Activates dmPFC
Expected value
Probability of an outcome x associated reward
Expected utility
Psychological value assigned to an outcome.
Diminishing marginal utility
Utility difference between 0 to 1000 is larger than difference between 100,000 and 101,000
Reference dependence
Subjective vs objective value
- ppl make decisions based on current state
- slope is steeper for losses (more salient)
Probability weighting
- Overestimate low probability events
- underestimate high probability events
Rationality
Consistency in decision making that results in the best value regardless of context
Bounded rationality
Rational decisions bounded by our limited mental and physical resources
Heuristics
Rules that simplify complex decisions
Satisficing
It’s “good enough”
Iowa gambling task
Four decks
- A and B = high return and high loss
- C and D = low return and low loss
Gambling task and brain activity
Normal: avoid bad decks over time
- show increase SCR (sweating)
- increase arousal in thinking of bad deck
VmPFC patients–keep choosing bad deck
-steady SCR….no change when choosing bad deck….lack of arousal
Somatic Marker Decision
Feelings have a direct and causal role in decision making
-vmPFC needed to allow you to use activity of ANS (gut response) to guide decisions
Alternative explanations
Poor performance of vmPFC patients = failure of reversal learning
-important for extinction of conditioned behavior
Ultimatum Game
Proposer
-propose a division of funds
Responder
-decide if you will accept this division
Accept = both get money
Reject = both get nothing
Thoughts of game
Responder:
-conflict between what is offered and what you would have liked as an offer
Ultimatum game Brain area
Insula
dlPFC
Insula
More active for unfair offers
-predicts likelihood of REJECTION
Less insula activity when unfair offer is offered by computer Bc it’s not deemed intentional
DlPFC
More active than insula when willing to accept unfair offer
- cognitive reappraisal
- self control
Reward processing brain area
Mesocorticolimbic reward system
-uses dopamine
Wanting vs liking
Neurons are more responsive to ANTICIPATION of reward than the reward itself
Anticipation = wanting
Negative Reward prediction errors
Outcome is worse than expected
Dopamine signals the ABSENCE of reward by INHIBITING their firing
Temporal discounting
Now is better than later
-value is discounted the longer you wait
Subjective value of reward
Activity in mesocorticolimbic reward pathway
Delay of gratification
Increase Activity in dlPFC and parietal Cortex increase likelihood of delay reward
Inferior occipital gyrus and fusiform gyrus
Face identification– non changeable