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Final Flashcards

1
Q

What are the functions of a normal kidney?

A

Fluid and electrolyte balance

Excretion of nitrogenous wastes

Erythropoietin

Renin

Vitamin D activation

Filtration (glomerulus)

Reabsorption and secretion (tubular)

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2
Q

What is azotemia? What is uremia?

A

Azotemia: accumulation of nitrogenous wastes BUN and/or creatinine)

Uremia: clinical signs associated with renal failure

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3
Q

What is the difference between pollakiuria and polyuria?

A

Polakiuria: increased frequency, small amounts

Polyuria: large amounts

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4
Q

What are systemic clinical signs of renal failure?

A

Fever

Body condition

Oral ulcers

Pale MM

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5
Q

Which tests evaluate the upper vs lower urinary tract?

A

UA: both upper and lower

Serum chemistry: upper

Renal function tests: upper

Imaging: upper and lower

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6
Q

What produces creatinine? How is it excreted? Is it secreted or reabsorbed?

A

Produced by muscle

Excreted by filtration

Neither secreted or absorbed

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7
Q

What produces BUN? How is it excreted? Is it secreted or reabsorbed?

A

Produced by liver

Excreted by filtration

Also secreted and reabsorbed

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8
Q

When should you evaluate a urine sample?

A

Within 1 hour of collection

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9
Q

Reagent urinalysis strips are reliable for assessing which parameters?

A

WBCs,

Nitrites

Urobilinogen

SG

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10
Q

What factors affect the accuracy of reagent urinalysis strips?

A

Moisture

Alkaline urine

Discolored urine

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11
Q

What ketone does chemical urinalysis accurately test for?

A

Actoacetate

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12
Q

How do you tell the difference from blood, hemoglobin, and myoglobin in urine?

A

Spin down urine -> pellet on bottom with clear supernate = blood, no pellet = myoglobin or hemoglobin

To differentiate between myoglobin and hemoglobin, need to spin down blood -> pellet with clear supernate = myoglobin, red supernate = hemoglobin

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13
Q

What are differentials for bilirubin in urine?

A

Hemolysis

Liver disease

Bile duct obstruction

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14
Q

What is important to keep in mind when evaluating casts?

A

They will dissolve is urine is allowed to sit before analysis

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15
Q

What type of cast is indicative of on-going renal disease?

A

Cellular

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16
Q

Does absence of casts rule out renal damage?

A

NO

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17
Q

Fat is common in the sediment of what species?

A

Cats

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18
Q

T/F: crystalluria is not always pathogenic?

A

True

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19
Q

Can you tell which urine is more concentrated by comparing color?

A

No

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20
Q

What are the defining parameters for AKI?

A

Increase in creatinine by > 0.3 mg/dL in 48 hours

Increase in creatinine > 1.5 x baseline

Urine production < 0.5 mL/kg/hr (6 hours)

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21
Q

What is the principle biomarker of AKI?

A

Creatinine

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22
Q

What defines normal urine output, oliguria, and anuria?

A

Normal: 20-50 ml/kg/day or 1-2 ml/kg/hr

Oliguria: < 1 ml/kg/hr

Anuria < 0.1 ml/kg/hr

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23
Q

What is the RIFLE staging system of AKI?

A

Risk: inc. Cr 50-100% or UO < 0.5 ml/kg/hr > 6 hrs

Injury: inc. Cr 100-200% or UO < 0l.5 ml/kg/hr >12 hrs

Failure: inc. Cr >200% or > 4mg/dL or UO < 0.3 ml/kg/hr for > 24 hrs or anuria >12 hrs

Loss of function: need dialysis for > 4 wks

End-stage renal disease: need dialysis for > 3 mo

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24
Q

What is the IRIS staging system of AKI?

A

Used in vet med

Grades 1-5 based on rises in serum Cr

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25
Q

What are the main clinical signs that differentiate AKI from CKD?

A

AKI: acut onset of clinical signs, normal BCS

CDK: chronic, decreased body condition

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26
Q

What are causes of renal tubular injury?

A

Toxins (ethylene glycol, lillies, grapes/raisins)

Nephrotoxic drugs (abx, NSAIDs, radiocontrast agents)

Metabolic dz (hypercalcemia)

Endogenous substances (myoglobin, hemoglobin)

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27
Q

What causes interstitial nephritis?

A

Pyelonephritis

Leptospirosis

Granulomatous disease

Neoplasia

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28
Q

What causes glomerular disease?

A

Immune-mediated complex deposition causing inflammation of the glomerulus (glomerulonepehritis)

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29
Q

What is the most common cause of AKI in cats?

A

Urinary obstruction

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30
Q

What is the most common cause of AKI in dogs?

A

Unknown

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31
Q

Elevated anion gap, ionized hypocalcemia, and calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals may be observed following what cause of AKI?

A

Ethylene glycol toxicity

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32
Q

What changes in hematocrit are seen with AKI?

A

Normal or elevated

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33
Q

A positive urine culture raises concern for what cause of AKI?

A

Pyelonephritis

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34
Q

What types of fluid should be avoided in the treatment of AKI?

A

Chloride-rich solutions

Synthetic colloids

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35
Q

What is the definition of fluid overload?

A

More than 10% increase in BW from baseline

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36
Q

What are the main goals of nutritional support in treatment of AKI?

A
  1. Preserve lean body mass
  2. Avoid further metabolic complications
  3. Support immune system
  4. Improve GI tract function

Give a phosphate binder with each meal!

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37
Q

What should you avoid force feeding renal diets?

A

Creates aversion

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38
Q

What are the indications for dialysis?

A

Severe hyperkalemia

Severe fluid overload

Severe acid-base disturbance

Sever or progressive azotemia

Oliguria/anuria

Pre-surgical conditioning

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39
Q

What is the cause and treatment or uremic gastritis?

A

Cause: decreased Gastrin elimination

Tx with antiemetics and reduce acid production

Antiemetics: cerenia, ondansetron, metoclopramide

Decreased acid production: H2-blockers, proton pump inhibitors, sucralfate

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40
Q

What is true about using furosemide?

A

No evidence supports the use of loop diuretics, used as a rescue protocol

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41
Q

What is fenoldopam?

A

Dopamine-1 receptor antagonist used to increase GFR but ultimately there is no change in renal funtion

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42
Q

What vasopressor is recommended for use in AKI to restore blood pressure and urine output?

A

Norepinephrine

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43
Q

What are the types of renal replacement therapies?

A

Therapeutic Plasma Exchange (TPE)

Hemoperfusion

Intracorporeal: Peritoneal dialysis

Extracorporeal: Intermittent Hemodialysis (IHD), Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT)

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44
Q

What is the difference between Intermittent Hemodialysis and Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy?

A

IHD: 3-6 hours, most efficient, “saw tooth” excursions with greater risk of complications, water purification systems, non-portable

CRRT: Long >24hr sessions, less efficient, replacement fluid before or post filter, Sterile dialysate, portable, more expensive

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45
Q

What is the prognosis of AKI with hemodialysis?

A

~50%

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46
Q

What do beta receptors control?

A

Bladder relaxation

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47
Q

What do alpha receptors control?

A

Bladder contraction, increase tone of internal urethral sphincter

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48
Q

Which nerves control bladder filling?

A

Hypogastric n. and pudendal n.

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49
Q

Which nerves control the voiding phase?

A

Distention -> pelvic n.

Pain/over-distention -> hypogastric n.

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50
Q

What does acetylcholine control?

A

Contraction of bladder

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51
Q

What are the characteristics of storage disorders?

A

Voluntary urination is normal

Involuntary leakage

Normal residual volume

stranguira is uncommon

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52
Q

What are the characteristics of voiding disorders?

A

Voluntary urination is abnormal -> stranguria, pollakiuria, diminished urine stream, usually postures

Increased residual volume

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53
Q

What are examples of storage disorders?

A

Urethral incompetence

Detrusor relaxation

Ectopic ureter

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54
Q

What is the most common storage disorder?

A

Urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence (USMI)

Spayed female dogs, incontinence at rest

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55
Q

What is the cause of urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence and what is the treatment?

A

Cause: decreased estrogen-> inc collagen and dec muscle

Tx: phenylpropanolamine (alpha adrenergic agonist), estrogen

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56
Q

What disorders are considered urethral incompetence?

A

Urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence

Pelvic bladder

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57
Q

How do you diagnose pelvic bladder and what is the treatment?

A

Dx: clinical signs and rads

Treatment: similar to USMI (PPA) +/- surgery

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58
Q

What is a bladder relaxation disorders?

A

Detrusor spasticity

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59
Q

What are the clinical signs of detrusor spasticity, what are possibly causes, how do you diagnose it, and what is the treatment?

A

CS: sudden voiding with small bladder

Cause: usually secondary to inflammation (infection, cystoliths, neoplasia, idiopathic)

Dx: presumptive, cystometrography

Tx: Treat underlying disease!/enhance bladder relaxation with anticholinergics

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60
Q

What are the clinical signs of ectopic ureters, how do you diagnose it, and what is the treatment?

A

Cs: constant dribbling of urine

Dx: cystoscopy, contrast radiography or CT,

Tx: Laser ablation (intramural), surgery, manage like USMI

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61
Q

What are examples of voiding disorders?

A

Detrusor contraction (atony or LMN disease)

Urethral relaxation

physical obstruction

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62
Q

What are the clinical signs of detrusor atony?

A

Large, soft bladder,

Stranguira with minimal/weak stream

Large residual volume

May see “overflow” incontinence

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63
Q

What are the clinical signs of LMN disease?

A

Distended, flaccid bladder

Decreased anal tone and perineal reflex

+/- paraparesis/paralysis

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64
Q

What is the treatment for detrusor atony?

A

Neurogenic: fix underlying problem

Non-neurogenic: relieve physical obstruction or address functional obstruction

Re-establish tight junctions, keep bladder small, stimulate detrusor contraction -> bethanecol

Do not do this if urethral obstruction present!

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65
Q

Which class of drug would you use to relax the internal urethral sphincter?

A

Alpha- adrenergic antagonist

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66
Q

What are the clinical signs of urethrospasm?

A

Relatively common post-catheterization, especially cats

Stranguria, pollakiuria,

Large, firm bladder

Initial normal stream then stops

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67
Q

What is the treatment for urethrospasm?

A

Internal sphincter: a-antagonist (phenoxybenamine, prazosin, tamsulosin– dogs only)

External sphncter: diazepam, alprazolam, midazolam, ace

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68
Q

What do upper motor neuron lesions result in?

A

Loss of voluntary bladder function

Tetra or para-paresis

Hyperreflexia

CP deficits

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69
Q

What is a main clinical sign of physical obstruction?

A

LOW heart rate

70
Q

What do you do if you suspect urethral obstruction?

A
  1. Check electrolytes/address hyperkalemia
  2. Rads
  3. Relieve obstruction
71
Q

What do pelvic or pudendal n. Lesions result in?

A

Pelvic -> detrusor atony

Pudendal -> external sphincter dysfunction

72
Q

Drug of choice for detrusor atony?

A

Bethanecol

73
Q

Drug of choice for urethrospasm?

A

Phenoxybenamine

74
Q

What is the difference between macroscopic and microscopic hematuria?

A

Macroscopic: can see grossly

Microscopic: no visible discoloration but > 5 RBCs per hpf

75
Q

What are differentials for hematuria without dysuria?

A

UPPER URINARY TRACT

Renal neoplasia * most common*

Trauma

Heat stroke

Coagulopathy

These animals are usually very sick

76
Q

What are differentials for hematuria with dysuria?

A

LOWER URINARY TRACT

Cystitis

Urolithiasis

prostatitis

Benign prostatic hyperplasia

Neoplasia

Trauma

77
Q

What are differentials for hemoglobinuria?

A

IMHA

DIC

Heat stroke

Caval syndrome

78
Q

What are nephrotoxic drugs used in LA medicine?

A

Phenylbutazone

Aminoglycosides

79
Q

What is normal water consumption and urine output for horses?

A

Intake: 40-60ml/kg/day

Output: 5-20 ml/kg/day

80
Q

What structures can be felt on transrectal palpation in horses?

A

Caudal pole of L kidney
Bladder
Prox urethra

81
Q

What structures can be felt on transrectal palpation in cattle?

A

L kidney

Ureters

BLadder

urethra

82
Q

What structures can be felt on transrectal palpation in small ruminants?

A

Proximal urethra

Bladder

83
Q

What structure can a urinary catheter get stuck on when catheterizing female cattle?

A

Suburethral diverticulum

84
Q

How can you stimulate urination in small ruminants?

A

Cover nose and mouth

85
Q

In LA, what is indicative of glomerulonephritis?

A

Hypoalbuminemia

86
Q

Why is BUN not routinely measured in cattle?

A

Almost all BUN goes through GI and very little is excreted by kidneys

87
Q

In LA, which serum abnormalities are seen with AKI?

A

Decreased Na, Cl, Ca

Inc K, Mg, P

88
Q

What serum electrolyte abnormalities are seen in CKD in horses?

A

Increased Ca

Decreased P

89
Q

What is the normal urine appearance for ruminants? Horses?

A

Ruminants - clear, straw color

Horses- cloudy, straw colored

90
Q

Herbivores will have alkaline urine except:

A

High protein diet

Anorexia

Neonates

91
Q

What will falsely increase USG in LA?

A

Protein or glucose

92
Q

USG < 1.008 is normal in which animals?

A

Suckling foals

93
Q

Isosthenuria is normal in what type of animals?

A

High producing dairy cows

94
Q

Fractional clearance of what molecule can help differentiate between pre-renal and renal azotemia?

A

Na

Normally <1%

95
Q

What factors can alter fractional clearances?

A

IV fluids
Furosemide
Exercise

96
Q

What is an early indicator of proximal tubule damage that will increase quickly with aminoglycoside toxicity?

97
Q

What GGT/creatinine ratio is clinically relevant?

98
Q

Where in the nephron is glucose reabsorbed? What is the threshold?

A

Proximal tubule

150 mg/dL

99
Q

What are the complications associated with renal biopsy?

A

Hemorrhage

Bowel penetration

“End stage kidney disease”

100
Q

What does nuclear scintigraphy assess?

A

Renal perfusion

101
Q

What is the most common cause of AKI in large animals?

A

Acute tubular necrosis

102
Q

Which is the most nephrotoxic aminoglycoside?

A

Neomycin > kanamycin > gentamicin > amikacin > streptomycin

103
Q

What are the nephrotoxic antimicrobials?

A

Aminoglycosides

Oxytetracycline

Polymixin B

Amphotericin B

104
Q

What antimicrobials are effective in the treatment of Leptospirosis?

A

Doxycycline, amplicllin, penicillin, amoxicillin, ceftiofur

105
Q

What renal disease is caused by immune complex deposition by Strep (LA)?

A

Acute glomerulonephritis

106
Q

What are the clinical signs of post-renal (obstructive) azotemia in foals?

A

Dysuria, colic

Lordotic back, tail flagged, frequent attempts to urinate

107
Q

What signs on ultrasound are indicative of AKI (LA)?

A

Perirenal edema

Hypoechogenicity

Loss of corticomedullary distinction

Dilation of renal pelvis

108
Q

What is the medical treatment of hyperkalemia in AKI in LA?

A

0.9% NaCl fluids

5% dextrose

Calcium gluconate

Sodium bicarbonate

Insulin

109
Q

What are the clinical signs of CKD in LA?

A

Chronic weight loss most common

Rough hair coat

Poor athletic performance

PU/PD

Ventral edema

Uremic halitosis

Urea excretion in sweat

Dental tartar, gingivitis, oral ulcers

110
Q

Is the degree of PU/PD related to the severity of azotemia?

111
Q

What electrolyte abnormalities are associated with CKD in LA?

A

HyperCa

Hypo P

112
Q

What is the prognosis for CKD?

A

Cr < 5 mg/dL = may manage for months-years

Cr > 10-12 = marked compromise

Cr > 15 mg/dl = grave

113
Q

What are the clinical signs of uroperitoneum in foals?

A

Abdominal distention

Colic

Stranguria, pollakiuria

Lethargy, depression, anorexia

114
Q

What are the lab findings that are consistent with uroperitoneum?

A

Post-renal azotemia

Hypo Na, hypoCl, hyperK

Abdominocentesis: peritoneal Cr > 2x serum Cr

115
Q

What is the medial treatment for uroperitoneum?

A

0.9% NaCl, 5% dextrose, Ca gluconate, Na bicarbonate

Antimicrobials

Abdominal drainage

116
Q

What is the most common urolith in large animals?

A

Calcium carbonate

117
Q

What are the clinical signs of cystoliths in large animals?

A

Hmaturia post exercise

Stranguira

Incontinence

recurrent colic

118
Q

What is the treatment for urolithiasis in mares?

A

Manual removal: crushing, lithotripsy, urethral sphincterotomy

119
Q

What is the treatment of urolithiasis in male horses?

A

Pararectal cystotomy

Perineal urethrosctomy

Cystotomy

Flank (nephrectomy, ureterotomy)

120
Q

What is the incidence of recurrence of urolithiasis in large animals?

A

41% recurrence within 1-32 months

121
Q

Pathology of which organ does hematuria throughout the stream indicate? Beginning of stream? End of urination?

A

Throughout: kidneys, bladder

Beginning of stream: distal urethra

End of urination: proximal urethra

122
Q

What is idiopathic renal hematuria?

A

Sudden onset, life-threatening hematuria

Blood clots from one or both kidneys

No age or sex predisposition, but >50% arabians

123
Q

What other diseases must you rule out to diagnose idiopathic renal hematuria?

A

Renal adenocarcinoma

Coagulopathy

124
Q

How do you treat idiopathic renal hematuria?

A

Supportive care

Blood transfusions

Medications to promote hemostasis

Unilateral nephrectomy

Dexamethasone

125
Q

What can cause hematuria from the bladder in large animals?

A

Cystolith

Neoplasia

Blister beetle toxicity

126
Q

How do you diagnose cantharidin toxicity?

A

Hypocalcemia

Hypomagnesemia

Azotemia

ID beetle in hay, GI contents, or urine

127
Q

Hematuria caused by the urethral or external genitalia may be caused by

A

Neoplasia (squamous cell carcinoma)

habronemiasis

Urethral tear

128
Q

Where in the urethral are. Tears common? What is the most common clinical sign?

A

At the level of ischial arch, dorsocaudal aspect

CS: bright red urine att the end of urination

No pollakiuria, dysuria

QH geldings

129
Q

How do you treat urethral tears?

A

Benign neglect

Subischial perineal urethotomy

Corpus spongiosum incision

Buccal mucosal graft

130
Q

How is bacterial cystitis treated in horses?

A

TMS, penicillin, cefitiofur*

Diuresis

Acidify urine

131
Q

What are the clinical signs of pyelonephritis in horses?

A

Signs of systemic inflammatory disease

132
Q

What is the difference between upper and lower motor neuron causes of incontinence in horses?

A

UMN: increased urethral resistance , pollakiuria, sporadic dribbling

LMN: relaxed bladder and sphincter, continuous dribbling, cauda equina syndrome, loss of anal/tail tone, hindlimb weakness, perineal analgesia

133
Q

What is myogenic bladder incontinence?

A

Idiopathic or secondary to obstruction

Weight of sediment stretches detrusor and breaks down tight junctions

Causes inability to depolarize and cannot maintain sphincter

134
Q

What is the treatment of sabulous cystitis in horses?

A

Treat any bacterial infection

Lavage bladder

Stimulate bladder emptying (bethanecol)

135
Q

What defines polydipsia and polyuria in horses?

A

Urine output >50 ml/kg/day

Water consumption >100 ml/kg/day

136
Q

How do you differentiate between a psychogenic drinker, neurogenic diabetes insipidus, and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?

A

Psychogenic drinker will respond to water deprivation test

Neurogenic DI: only responds to vasopresin

Nephrogenig DI: Does not respond to anything

137
Q

How does PPID cause PU/PD?

A

Cortisol antagonism of vasopressin

138
Q

What causes acute tubular necrosis in ruminants?

A

Vasomotor nephropathy

Antimicrobials

NSAIDs

Metals

Vit D

Cholecalciferol rodenticides

Ethylene glycol

139
Q

What causes hemoglobinuria in ruminants?

A

Post-parturient hemoglobinuria

Copper toxicity

Bacillary hemoglobinura

Water intoxxication

Salt poisoning

Selenium deficiency

140
Q

What causes myoglobinuria in ruminants?

A

White muscle disease (Vit E, Se deficiency

Senna occidentalis plant

141
Q

How does oak toxicity cause AKI in ruminants? What are the CS? What is the Tx?

A

Tannins hydrolyzed in rumen and are toxic to renal tubules

Causes cotipation, melena, weight loss

Causes azotemia, proteinuria, glucosuria

Tx: support, prevention

142
Q

How does pigweed cause AKI in ruminants? What are the CS and lab findings?

A

Oxalates chelate calcium

Causes weakness, tremors, ataxia, and recumbency

Causes azotemia, proteinuria, and hyperkalemia

143
Q

What causes amyloidosis and what are possible sequelae?

A

Caused by inflammatory disease

Causes PLN -> loss of albumin and antithrombin 3 -> thrombosis (pulmonary or renal)

Diarrhea

144
Q

What causes acute and chronic glomerulonephritis in ruminants?

A

Acute: pregnancy toxemia
Chronic: immune-mediated: BVD, hog cholera, african swine fever

Inherited: Finidh Landrace lambs

145
Q

What causes pyelonephritis in ruminants?

A

Corynebacterium renale

E. Coli

C. Psuedotuberculosis, T. Pyogenes, Salmonella, Staph aureus

146
Q

What are the clinical signs of pyelonephritis in ruminants?

A

Colic, arched back, treading, tail swishing

fever, depression, inappetence, decreased milk production

Blood, pus, crystals on vulva

147
Q

What is the treatment for pyelonephritis?

A

G+: penicillin

G -: cefitofur

148
Q

What are the most common sites of obstruction in small ruminants? Cattle?

A

Small ruminants: urethral process

Cattle: sigmoid flexure

149
Q

Walpoles solution can be used to dissolve what kind of stones?

A

Struvite stones

150
Q

Which surgical treatment of urolithiasis is best for breeding future?

A

Tube cystotomy

151
Q

How can you prevent urolithiasis in ruminants?

A

Increase forage

Acidify urine

Encourage water consumption

Delay castration

Avoid estrogenic growth stimulants

152
Q

What is “pizzle rot” and what causes it?

A

Ulcerative posthitis and vulvitis

Corynebacterium renale

153
Q

Chronic ingestion of what plant may cause hematuria, bladder neoplasms, dysuria, pollakiuria, and death?

A

Bracken fern

154
Q

Which stones for because of a increase in solute? Which stones form because of a lack of inhibitors?

A

Increase in solute: struvite, urate, cystine

Lack of inhibitors: calcium oxalate

155
Q

What is the order of least invasive to most invasive techniques for removing stones?

A
  1. Dissolution
  2. Catheter
  3. Voiding

4 Lithotripsy

5 Lap assisted Sx

  1. Sx
156
Q

What type of stones are associated with UTIs?

157
Q

What are predisposing factors for CaOx stones?

A

Breed (mmin schnauzer, shih tzu, lahaa apso, yorkies)

Obestiy

Glucocorticoids

Primary hyperparathyroidism

Chronic metabolic acidosis

158
Q

What factors contribute to bacterial virulence?

A

Capsular antigens

Hemolysins

Plasmids

Urease production

159
Q

What are the host defenses against UTI?

A

Micturition

Anatomy

Mucosal barriers

Urine

160
Q

What can cause asymptomatic bacteruria?

A

Cushing’s

Chemo patients

Chronic kidney disease

161
Q

How long should you treat uncomplicated bacterial cystitis? Complicated bacterial cystitis?

A

Uncomplicated: 10-14 days

Complicated: 4-8 weeks

162
Q

How can you treat frequent UTIs?

A

Treat with 1/3-1/2 antibiotic dose before bed

Methenamine hippurate- urinary antiseptic converted to formaldehyde in bladder

163
Q

What are the goals for CKD management?

A

Good quality of life

Delay onset of uremic crisis

Slow progression

Improve survival time

164
Q

What are the goals of controling serum phorphorus concentrations?

A

Minimize progression of CKD

Prevent tissue mineralization

Avoid 2ndary hyperparathyroidism

165
Q

How can you control serum phosphorus levels in patients with CKD?

A

Phosphate binders

Aluminum based

Calcium based

166
Q

How can you control hypertension in animals with CKD?

A

Na restriction

ACE inhibitors

Ca channel blocker

Hydralazine

167
Q

How do you control proteinuria in patients with CKD?

A

ACE inhibitors

168
Q

How do you control acid-base balance in patients with CKD?

A

K+cirtrate unless hyperkalemic

169
Q

What tests are available for detecting urine protein?

A

Dipstick colormetric test

Sulfasalicyclic acid test

POC microalbuminemia test

quantitative assay

170
Q

What is the standard therapy for proteinuric kidney disease?

A

RAAS inhibition (enalapril)

Diet

Aspirin

Anti-hypertensives

171
Q

Will a cat with FLUTD have PU/PD?

A

Usually no

Urology (2 decks)

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