Final Flashcards
1
Q
Genotype
A
Set of genes in our DNA which is responsible for a particular trait
2
Q
Phenotype
A
Physical expression, or characteristics, of that trait
3
Q
Gene
A
Unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring
4
Q
DNA
A
Made up of six smaller molecules – a five carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate molecule and four different nitrogenous bases
5
Q
Nucleotide
A
Made up of one sugar molecule, one phosphate molecule and one of the four bases
6
Q
Monohybrid
A
Inheritance pattern of a single trait
7
Q
Dihybrid
A
Inheritance patterns of two traits that are linked
8
Q
Leading strand
A
Synthesized in same direction as the movement of the replication fork
9
Q
Lagging strand
A
Synthesized in the opposite direction of replication fork
10
Q
DNA is synthesized through a process called
A
Semi-conservative replication
11
Q
What provides energy for the polymerization reactions in DNA synthesis?
A
Breaking down the hydrogen bonds between complementary DNA strands
12
Q
Role of DNA ligase in the elongation of the lagging strand during DNA replication
A
Join Okazaki fragments
13
Q
Telomere
A
The ends of linear chromosomes
14
Q
RNA Polymerse
A
5’—>3’
15
Q
Codons
A
Part of the molecular structure of mRNA
16
Q
Complementary base pairing
A
G–C, A–T
17
Q
Blending inheritance
A
Parental traits blend such that their offspring have intermediate traits
18
Q
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
A
Parental traits are modified then passed on to their offspring
19
Q
Particulate inheritance
A
Suggests that hereditary determinants maintain their integrity from generation to generation
20
Q
Mendel accepted the hypothesis
A
Alleles of different genes are transmitted independently of one another (principle of independent assortment)
21
Q
Semi-conservative replication
A
The parental DNA strands separate, each is used as a template for the synthesis of a new strand. Daughter molecules each consist of one old and one new strand
22
Q
DNA polymerase
A
Enzyme that catalyzes DNA synthesis
23
Q
DNA synthesis direction
A
5′ –> 3′
24
Q
Okazaki fragments
A
The lagging strand is synthesized as short discontinuous fragments, DNA polymerase removes the RNA primer at the beginning of each Okazaki fragment
25
Central dogma
Summarizes the flow of information in cells
DNA codes for RNA, which codes for proteins:
DNA -(Transcription)-> RNA -(Translation)->proteins
26
Transcription
The process by which the information in DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) for protein production
27
Function of Primase
The synthesis of the short section of RNA,
| complementary to single-stranded DNA
28
Translation
Takes place in Cytoplasm/in ribosomes, mRNA is turned to protein.
29
In gene regulation, which type of control is the most efficient?
Transcriptional control
30
Nucleoside Triphosphates
Where every form of synthesis comes from,
31
What provides the energy for the polymerization reactions in DNA synthesis?
Deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate substrates
32
The greatest expression of the lac operon occurs when
lactose levels are high and glucose levels are low
33
The product of thelacI gene is
The repressor
34
Inducer
Binds to repressor so repressor does not bind with operator
35
Enhancers
Increase the likelihood of transcription of a particulr gene occuring, located far from promoter
36
Meristems
Specialized, undifferentiated cells continue proliferating throughout the organism’s life.
Compared to stem cells in animals
37
Induction
A group of cells producing a signal to change the behavior of an adjacent set of cells.
38
Gastrulation
Phase early in the embryonic development of most animals, during which the single-layered blastula is reorganized into a trilaminar ("three-layered") structure known as the gastrula.
39
Morphogenesis
Process where cells move around and organize themselves into structures, organs and systems of the adult organism.
40
Bicoid gene
Provides essential information about the anterior-posterior axis.
41
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
42
Segmentation Genes
Organize cells and tissues into distinct segments
43
Gap genes
Define the general position of segments in the anterior, middle, or posterior of the body
44
Pair-rule genes
Separate the boundaries of individual segments
45
Segment polarity genes
Indicate positions of individual segments
46
Pattern formation
The developmental process by which cells acquire different identities, depending on their relative spatial positions within the embryo.
47
Fertilization envelope
Keeps away additional sperm, Ca2+
48
Acrosome Reaction
Digest the protective jelly coat on the surface of egg
49
Cleavage
Set of rapid cell divisions that take place in animal zygotes immediately after fertilization
50
Ectoderm
Forms the outer covering of the adult body and the nervous system
51
Mesoderm
Gives rise to muscle, most internal organs, and connective tissues such as bone and cartilage
52
Endoderm
Produces the lining of the digestive tract or gut, along with some of the associated organs
53
Vestigial trait
A reduced or incompletely developed structure in an organism that has no (or reduced) function
54
Homology
Similarity that exists in species descended from a common ancestor
55
Genetic homology
Similarity in the DNA nucleotide sequences, RNA nucleotide sequences, or amino acid sequences
56
Developmental homology
Seen in embryos of different species. For example, tails and gill pouches are found in the embryos of chickens, humans, and cats
57
Structural homology
Similarity in adult morphology
58
Vestigial traits
Evidence that the characteristics of species have changed over time
59
Biological fitness
The ability of an individual to produce surviving, fertile offspring relative to that ability in other individuals in the population
60
Adaptation
heritable trait that increases an individual’s fitness in a particular environment relative to individuals lacking that trait
61
Stabilizing selection
Results in a decrease of a population's genetic variance when natural selection favors an average phenotype and selects against extreme variations.
62
Directional selection
A population's genetic variance shifts toward a new phenotype when exposed to environmental changes.
63
Diversifying or disruptive selection
Increases genetic variance when natural selection selects for two or more extreme phenotypes that each have specific advantages. In diversifying or disruptive selection, average or intermediate phenotypes are often less fit than either extreme phenotype and are unlikely to feature prominently in a population.
64
Genetic drift
Change in small population that later had a great impact on the phenotype of a species.
65
Gene flow
Transfer of alleles/genes from one population to another.
66
Genetic bottleneck
Sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events.
67
Convergent evolution
Organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits.
68
Inbreeding
It does not change the population's allele frequencies
69
The Biological Species Concept
Different species either do not interbreed, or they fail to produce viable, fertile offspring
70
The Morphospecies Concept
Individual species differ in size, shape, or other morphological feature
71
The Phylogenetic Species Concept
Identifies species based on evolutionary history
72
Monophyletic
Descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, especially one not shared with any other group.
73
Synapomorphy
Trait unique to a monophyletic group
74
Allopatric speciation
Speciation that begins with geographic isolation
75
Dispersal
A population moves to a new habitat, colonizes it, and forms a new population
76
Vicariance
A physical barrier splits a widespread population into subgroups that are physically isolated from each other
77
Phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a group of organisms
78
Parsimony
Simplest explanation that can explain the data is to be preferred
79
Life’s Time Line
The Earth started to form about 4.6 billion years ago
| Life began around 3.4 billion years ago
80
The Cambrian Explosion
By about 50 million years later, animals had diversified into almost all the major groups living today
81
Bacteria and archaea are distinguished by
The types of molecules that make up their plasma membranes and cell walls
The machinery they use to transcribe DNA and translate mRNA into proteins
82
What organisms are most numerous on Earth?
Prokaryotes
83
The End-Permian Extinction
The largest mass extinction
84
Three Domains of Life
Bacteria, Eukayota and archaea
85
Bacteria
Cell walls are made primarily of peptidoglycan
86
Autotrophs
Synthesizing building-block compounds from simple starting materials
87
Heterotrophs
Absorbing building-block compounds from their environment
88
Chemotroph
Obtain energy from carbon
89
Protists
Diverse group of organisms that include all eukaryotes except the land plants, fungi, and animals
90
Bioremediation
Use of bacteria and archaea to clean up sites polluted with organic solvents
91
Seeding
Adding, specific species of bacteria and archaea to contaminated sites
92
Synapomorphy
Trait common in a single monophyletic group, but not generally found outside of that group
93
Paraphyletic
Descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, but not including all the descendant groups.
94
Polyphyletic
Derived from more than one common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group and therefore not suitable for placing in the same taxon.
95
Monophyletic
Descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, especially one not shared with any other group.
96
Secondary endosymbiosis
An organism engulfs a photosynthetic eukaryotic cell
| Retains its chloroplasts as intracellular symbionts
97
Primary Endosymbiosis
Primary endosymbiosis is the process in which a eukaryote engulfs another living prokaryote
98
Sporopollenin
Encases spores and pollen in modern land plants
99
Alternation of generations
A haploid phase called the gametophyte, A diploid phase known as the sporophyte
100
Haploid
Having a single set of unpaired chromosomes
101
Diploid
Containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent
102
Heterospory
The production of two distinct types of spores by different structures
103
Homosporous
They produce a single type of spore
104
Fungi
Unique ability to absorb the cellulose and lignin that comprise wood
105
Mycorrhizal
Allow faster plant growth
| Experiments show that plant growth suffers in the absence of these fungi
106
Saprophytes
Fungi that make their living by digesting dead plant material
107
Mycelia
Grow in the direction of food sources
108
Hyphae
Long, narrow, frequently branching filaments that make up a mycelium
109
Two primary types of plant-mycorrhizal interactions
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Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF)
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
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110
Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF)
Basidiomycetes, form dense mats that envelop roots but do no penetrate the walls of cells inside root.
111
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
Glomeromycetes, form bushy or balloon-like structures after making contact with the plasma membrane of a root cell
112
Parasitic relationships
One species benefits at the expense of the other
113
Mutualism relationships
Benefit both species
114
Commensal relationships
One species benefits while the other is unaffected
115
What Is an Animal
Animals are eukaryotes that share key traits:
Multicellularity
Heterotrophy
Motility
116
Heterotrophy
They obtain necessary carbon compounds from other organisms
| Most ingest their food rather than absorbing it
117
Motility
They move under their own power at some point in their life cycle
118
Multicellularity
Lack cell walls
| Have an extensive extracellular matrix
119
Diploblasts
Animals whose embryos have two types of tissues, or germ layers:
The ectoderm and the endoderm
120
Triploblasts
Bilaterally symmetric, Animals whose embryos have three germ layers:
The ectoderm
The endoderm
The mesoderm
121
Animals with radial symmetry
Cnidarians, ctenophores, and some sponges—have at least two planes of symmetry
122
Radial symmetry
Evolved independently in the echinoderms
123
Hox genes
Regulate development of the anterior–posterior axis
124
Coelom
An enclosed, fluid-filled body cavity between the tubes
125
Advantage of Coelon
Creates a container for circulation of oxygen and nutrients, and acts as an efficient hydrostatic skeleton,
gave bilaterally symmetric organisms the ability to move efficiently in search of food
126
Hydrostatic skeleton
Allows soft-bodied animals to move even without fins or limbs
127
Protostomes
The mouth develops before the anus
Blocks of mesoderm hollow out to form the coelom
Includes arthropods, mollusks, and segmented worms
The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster
The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans
128
Deuterostomes
The anus develops before the mouth
Pockets of mesoderm pinch off to form the coelom
Includes chordates and echinoderms
129
Lophotrochozoa
Grow by extending the size of their skeletons
Grow continuously when conditions are good
Includes the mollusks, annelids, flatworms, and rotifers
130
Cephalization
Evolution of a head where structures for feeding, sensing the environment, and processing information are concentrated
131
Suspension feeders
Capture food by filtering out particles suspended in water or air
132
Deposit feeders
Feed on bacteria, archaea, protists, fungi, and detritus
133
Fluid feeders
Suck or mop up liquids like nectar, plant sap, blood, or fruit juice
134
Viviparous
“Live-bearing” species
135
Oviparous
"Egg-bearing” species
136
Ovoviviparous
"Egg-live-bearing” species
137
Echinoderms
Marine animals named for the spines or spikes observed in many species, endoskeleton, Includes sea stars and sea urchins
138
Chordates
Includes the vertebrates (animals with backbones)
Vertebrates comprise hagfish, lampreys, cartilaginous and bony fishes, amphibians, mammals, and reptiles(reptiles include the birds)
139
Water vascular system
A series of branching, fluid-filled tubes and chambers that forms a hydrostatic skeleton
140
Tube feet
An important part of the water vascular system, Elongated, fluid-filled appendages, each consisting of:
An ampulla on the inside of the body
A tube-like podium projecting on the outside
141
Sea Stars
Echinodermata—Asteroidea
142
Chordates have four morphological features
- Openings into the throat called pharyngeal gill slits
- A dorsal hollow nerve cord that runs the length of the body, comprised of projections from neurons
- A stiff and supportive but flexible rod, called the notochord, that runs the length of the body
- A muscular post-anal tail
143
Chordates 4 characteristics evovle
Dorsal hollow nerve cord --> spinal cord
Phaaryngeal pouches --> Gills
Notochord --> develops, organize body plan movement
144
Prosimians
Before-monkeys
145
Anthropoids
Human-like
146
Primates
Hands and feet that are efficient at grasping
Flattened nails instead of claws on the fingers and toes
Relatively large brains
Color vision
Complex social behavior
Extensive parental care of offspring
Forward-facing eyes
147
Hominidae
great apes—orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans
148
Hominids
Distinct ways of walking = bipedal
149
Abiotic Factors
Physical conditions present
150
Biotic Factors
Interactions with other organisms
