Final Flashcards
1
Q
What were the three kingdoms Ernst haeckel proposed?
A
Plantae
Animalia
Protista (unicellular)
2
Q
What was Herbert copelands four kingdoms?
A
Plantae
Animalia
Protista (unicellular eukaryotes)
Monera (unicellular prokaryotes)
3
Q
What did stander do?
A
Created two domains
Prokaryotes - monera
Eukaryotes - plantae, animalia, and Protista
4
Q
What did whittaker do?
A
Added the fungi kingdom based on nutritional differences
Plantae- autotrophs
Animalia - heterotrophs
Fungi - saprotrophs
5
Q
What did Carl woese do?
A
Switched from outward appearance to genetic similarity and common ancestry
Divided prokaryotes into two domains: bacteria and archaea
6
Q
What are the five super groups?
A
Excavata Chromalveolata Rhizaria Archaeplastida Unikonta
7
Q
What is the excavata group?
A
Three monophyletic groups lacking classical mitochondria; 2,4, or more flagella
Ex. Giardia
8
Q
What is the chromalveolata supergroup?
A
Two monophyletic groups via secondary endosymbiosis with P/S red algae
Ex. Red tide
9
Q
What is the rhizaria group?
A
Three monophyletic groups with threadlike pseudopodia
Ex. Foramins
10
Q
What is the archaeplastida supergroup?
A
Three monophyletic clades resulting from primary endosymbiosis cyanobacterium
Ex. Brown and green algae
11
Q
What is the unikonta supergroup?
A
Two monophyletic clades: amoebozoans (lobe shaped pseudopodia) and opisthokonts (uni and multicellular single posterior flagellum)
12
Q
What are the structural factors that explain bacterial high levels of biodiversity?
A
- Flagellum: half of all prokaryote species capable of taxis
- Fimbriae: hair like appendages that adhere to surfaces, e transfer, and exchange plasmids
- Capsule: polysaccharides - sticky surface that adhere to substrate or other members of the colony
Provides protection from desiccation, extreme T, viruses, and antibiotics - Nucleoid: single, circular chromosome lacking nuclear membrane
- Plasmid: smaller independently replicating strand of DNA
- Ribosomes
13
Q
What processes create such a high biodiversity in bacteria?
A
- Rapid reproduction and mutation
2. Genetic recombination: horizontal gene transfer
14
Q
What are the three types of genetic recombination?
A
- Transformation: DNA fragments are spliced into nucleoid from the outer environment
- Transduction: viral DNA enters and breaks up bacterial DNA and begins producing viruses with may contain bacteria DNA
- Conjugation: pilus forms between two bacteria and exchange DNA
15
Q
What is the bacteria cell wall made of?
A
Outer membrane: lipopolysaccharides
Peptidoglycan layer: sugars and amino acids X-linked
Plasma membrane: glycolipids and glycoproteins
16
Q
How are gram negative or positive bacteria determined?
A
Stained with crystal violet and iodine then washed with ethanol
Counter stained with safranin
If it remains pink then gram negative
If it remains purple then gram positive
17
Q
What is the difference between gram positive and negative bacteria?
A
Gram negative: have outer membrane and toxins can cause fever/shock. More resistant to antibiotics
Gram positive: no outer membrane and thicker peptidoglycan. Susceptible to penicillin as it prevents X-linking
18
Q
Describe the evolutionary reasoning for bacteria colouring
A
Purple silver bacteria had no competition and optimized light absorption in green/yellow light, reflecting purple
Cyanobacteria capitalized on remaining spectrum and evolved chloroplasts reflecting green
World gradually became oxygenated and killed off most purple sulfer bacteria
Remain green to this day
19
Q
What are the carbon and energy source of the four Metabolic bacteria types?
A
Photoautotroph: inorganic CO2, HCO3, energy from sun
Chemoautotrophs: inorganic CO2, HCO3, energy from oxidation of H2S, NH3, Fe2+
Photo heterotrophs: organic C, sun
Chemoheterotrophs: organic C, oxidation of organic compounds
20
Q
What are the four types are archaea?
A
Crenarchaeota
Korarchaeota
Nanoarchaeota
Euryarchaeota
21
Q
What are viruses not considered living?
A
Can not reproduce on their own
Lack metabolic processes
Do not have cytoplasm enclosed by plasma membrane
22
Q
What is a virus?
A
Small bit of nucleic acid covered by a protein cost
Genes encode for protein subunits and transcription
23
Q
What is a viroid?
A
Naked circular RNA
24
Q
What is a prion?
A
Irregular folded proteins
25
What are the two general structures and the two modifications of viruses?
Structures:
Helical and icosahedral
Modifications:
Envelope or complex
26
Describe the lytic cycle
Virus recognizes receptors on host cell and attaches
Injects DNA and creates mRNA to make DNAases which cut up bacterial DNA
Use nucleotides from broken DNA to amplify mRNA and protein synthesis
Creates virus parts and then assemble
Cell lysis and virus leaves
27
Describe the lysogenic cycle
Virus attaches and injects DNA which splices into host DNA - prophage
Cell divides and replicates with viral DNA - lysogenic stage
Environmental stimuli causes viral DNA to become active
28
How does retrovirus (HIV) replicate?
Virus has membrane coat that fuses with membrane coat of t-cell
Virus is pulled into cell and releases two RNA strand and proteins
Reverse transcriptase goes from mRNA to single DNA strand and then double
Integrase splices it into host DNA
Causes cell to build protein subunits and then buds off cell membrane and forms final virus
29
What don't drugs work well with HIV?
Reverse transcriptase has no spell check so errors cause a slightly different protein and virus each time
30
What was Carolus Linnaeus's foundation for biological nomenclature?
Two kingdoms
Regnum Vegetabile
Regnum animalia
31
What are Protists?
Remnants of an outdated classification system
Today they do not have much in common except they are eukaryotic unicellular or eukaryotic multicellular without specialized tissues
32
How was the first eukaryotic cell formed?
Outer plasma membrane of arches cell got unfolds and grew around nucleoid forming Golgi apparatus and nuclear membrane
A gram + bacteria was brought into cell and became mitochondria
33
How many membranes did the 1st heterotrophic eukaryotic cell have?
2
Mitochondrial inner membrane homologous to inner plasma membrane
Chromosome structure homologous to prokaryotes
Reproduces via binary fission
34
What are diplomonads?
```
Excavata
Nucleus is split into two
Mitochondria is greatly reduced and don't make ATP
Have flagella
Ex. Giardia lamblia
```
35
What are parabasalids?
Excavata
Reduced mitochondria produce hydrogen gas
Ex. Trichomonas vaginalis
36
What are kinetoplastids?
Excavata
Part of euglenozoans
Have one huge mitochondria with 1000s of interlocking DNA strands
Ex. Trypanosoma (African sleeping sickness)
37
What are the five subgroups of excavata?
```
Diplomonads
Parabasalids
Euglenozoans
Kinetoplastids
Euglenids
```
38
What occurred during primary endosymbiosis?
Gram negative bacteria phagocytized and developed a symbiotic relationship with cell producing sugars
Became photosynthetic cell
Lead to evolution of archaeplastids
Have three membranes
39
What occurred during secondary endosymbiosis?
Phagocytosis of archaeplastid by kinetoplastid developing a symbiotic relationship and producing a euglenid
40
How were rhodophyta created?
Mutation in an archaeplastida caused it to start producing phycoerythrin an photosynthetic accessory pigment
41
How were chromalveolata?
Rhodophyta cell was phagocytized into a heterotrophic eukaryotic cell
42
What are the two phylum sod chromalveolata?
Alveolates and stramenopiles
43
What groups fall under alveolates?
Diatoms (silica dioxide plates)
Golden algae
Brown algae (kelp)
Oomycetes (fuzz on decomposing fish)
44
What are some general characteristics of fungi?
Obtain C by breaking down organic C synthesized by other organisms (heterotrophic eukaryotic)
No living- saprotrophs (decomposers)
Living - symbiont (symbiosis)
Feed by absorptive nutrients:
- secrete enzymes into environment
- break down large organic molecules into smaller solvable molecules
- absorb smaller molecules
45
Describe basidiomycota
Spore is a haploid cell that lets out a hypha
All are made out of chitin
Nutrients are absorbed at the top of the hypha and cytoplasmic streaming carries it
May grow many known as mycelium
46
How to basidiomycota reproduce?
When two hypha meet, plasmogamy occurs and they fuse but nuclei remain distinct
Create dikaryotic cell which grows into its own hypha and producing fruiting bodies when conditions are right (basidiocarps)
Nuclei come together in karyogamy to make diploid cell
Undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores
47
What are chytridiomycota?
Primitive fungi
Only one to produce flagellated, motile spores requiring minimal film of water
Live in soil or fresh water habitats
Responsible for harlequin frog decimation
48
What is zygomycota?
Moulds
| During reproduction come together creating a zygospore that will remain until conditions are right
49
What is glomeromycota?
Important in agriculture
Fuzz around roots of plants
Form a mutualistic relationship with roots (mycorrhizas)
Hypha penetrated into roots between cells and then deform cell (use arbuscles)
Fungi get carbon and roots get nutrients
50
What is ascomycota?
```
Lichens parasitic
Are and algae and a fungi
Cortex - top layer tight
Photobiont - green algae/Cyanobacteria
Mycobiont - fungi
Medulla - loosely woven hyphae
Cortex - concentrated hyphae
Removes all carbohydrates from algae
```
51
How do ascomycota reproduce?
Produces dikaryotic cup called ascus
Undergoes karyogamy creating a pod with a single nuclei in it
Undergoes meiosis then mitosis creating 8 haploid ascospores
52
What are choanoflagellates?
Some have stalks but not all
Those with stalks have flagellum to create water currents to bring in food
Current comes up through microvilli and out
Food particles get trapped and brought in through phagocytosis
53
How are choanoflagellates and sponges related?
If you invert the colonial form it is the exact structure found in sponges
54
What separates animals?
Multicellular eukaryotic heterotrophs
| Division of labour: cells preform different functions
55
What are Porifera and how do they feed?
Sponges
Water enters through ostiums and is expelled out through osculum
Filters food out of water
Thrust behind water is generated through choanoflagellates
56
What is the structure of Porifera?
Pinacoderm:
- cells are not always in contact with each other
- lack intercellular connections
- lack underlying basal lamina
- van transmit weak electrical signals (nerve net)
Mesohyl:
- no living spongin fibers and spicules
Archaeocytes, spicules, porocytes, choanocyte
57
What are archaeocytes?
Mobile
Scavenge contaminants
Produce spongin and spicules
Totipotent: can transform into any other cell required
58
What is the phylum Cnidaria?
Hydrozoans, jellyfish, corals, sea anemones
Two distinct tissue layers
Used specialized cells called cnidocytes to capture food
Either pelagic medusa (free floating) or benthic polyp (attached) in body plan
All have symmetry around aboral or oral axis
59
What are the three different ways cnidocytes capture food?
Nematocytes: little pin which when hit opens door and harpoons food ex. Jellyfish
Ptychocyst: glues on
Spirocyst: huge long lasso and wraps around food
60
What are the classes of the phylum Cnidaria?
Hydrozoa: marine (both) or fresh (polyp) ex. Fire coral
Scyphozoa: passive swimmers (medusa) ex. Jellyfish
Cubozoan: active swimmers ex. Box jellyfish
Anthozoa: adult polyp ex. Corals or sea anemones
61
What are Ctenophora?
Cilia on outside of bell that are fused together in lines on outside of the body
Propogates down side of body allowing them to move
Retractable tentacles and actual stomach
62
Describe the phylum acoela
Very small marine invertebrates resembling flatworms
Simple nervous system with no intestines or a he
Acoelmic - lack coelomic cavity
Triploblastic - endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm
Membranes don't open into cavity
63
How do protostomes differ from deuterostomes??
```
Protostomes:
- determinant cleavage: already programmed
- spiral clevage
- ventral NS (mouth 1st)
Deuterostomes:
- indeterminate cleavage: can create embryo
- radial clevage
- dorsal NS (anus first)
```
64
Describe phylum Platyhelminthes
Acoelomates
Flatworms and tapeworms
Passed in feces and through anus as proglottids
Dry up and released into environment
Infect cattle when eaten and hatch in ingesting
Migrate to muscle where develop into cysticerci
Consumed by humans and attaches to intestine wall and matures
65
Describe the phylum Rotifera
Pseudocoelomate
Found in puddles lakes and ponds
Eutely: fixed number of body cells
Parthogenesis: all female and produce diploid eggs
66
What do Rotifera do when environmental conditions deteriorate?
Produce a haploid eggs via meiosis
| Haploid makes fertilized egg and they gain a durable shell and then hatch when conditions improve
67
Describe the phylum Ectoprocta
Coelomate
Tiny colonial (bryozoans)
Characteristic lophophore - ciliates tentacles and suspension feeding
68
Describe the phylum Branchiopoda
Coelomate
Large solitary individual often stalked
Characteristic lophophore - ciliated tentacles, suspension feeding
Similar to phylum Ectoprocta but with shell
69
Describe the phylum mollusca
Soft bodied with mantle cavity
| Characteristic trochophore larvae
70
What are the different classes of mollusca?
Poluplacophora: chitons
Gastropoda: snails, limpets
Cephalopoda: squid, octopus, nautilus
Bivalves: queen conch shell
71
What s the difference between a bachiopod and a bivalve?
```
Brachiopod:
- shells asymmetrical dorsal/ventral
- lateral symmetry
- lophophore filter feeding
- large cilia generate current
- no gills
Bivalve:
- shells symmetric laterally
- incurrent siphon and excurrent siphon
- suspension filter feeding using gills
- fine cilia on films generate water flow
```
72
Describe the phylum Annelida
Coelomate
Segmented worms
Characteristic trochophore larvae
73
Describe phylum Nematoda
Pseudocoelomate
Round worms
Characteristic cuticle moulting
Adults live in lumen of small intestine
74
How do Nematoda infect humans?
Eggs pass with feces and become infective after several days
Swallow, hatch, and invade intestinal mucosa then carried to systemic circulation to lungs
Mature further in lungs
Penetrate alveolar walls then ascend bronchial tree to throat where swallowed
Reach small intestine and develop into adult worms
75
Describe phylum Arthropoda
Coelomate
Rigid exoskeleton jointed appendages
Characteristic cuticle molting
Classes: trilobita, chelicerata, myriapoda, crustacea, and Hexapoda
76
What are the different groups of the phylum Echinodermata?
Ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
Crinoidea (sea lollies and feather stars)
Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars)
Asteroidea (seas stars and sea daisies)
Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
77
How do Echinodermata move?
Muscle contractions push water down into madreporite and down into the ring canal. Then travels down radial Canals into the ampulla sacs and causes tube feet to move
78
What is the notocord?
Develops from mesoderm
Hydrostatic organ: core of cells and guild encased in tough sheath of fibrous tissues
Mechanical properties: elastic rode, flexes side to side but not along length
79
What are pharangeal gill slits?
Develops as outgrowths from the pharynx
| Along with mucus lining, filter feed food particles from water current
80
What are the chordate derived characteristics?
Notochord
Dorsal hollow nerve chord
Pharangeal gill slits
Muscular postanal tail
81
What are the groups under Chordata?
```
Cephalochordata
Urochordata
Craniates
Vertebrata
Gnathostomata
Osteichthyans
Sarcopterygii
Tetrapoda
Amniota
Mammalia
Primates
Hominins
Homo sapiens
```
82
What are cephalochordata?
Chordata body plan retained through adulthood
| Lancelets
83
What are Urochordata?
Chordata body plan found in larvae only
Once attach to substratum, metamorphosis with loss of tail and notochord
Tunicates
84
What separates cephalochordata from Urochordata?
Genes associated with vertebrate organs such as heart and thyroid gland
85
What are craniates?
Developed cranial tissue around the brain
Class myxini the hagfish
Gene duplication leading to two sets of hox genes
Developed head, 2-chambered heart, RBC's, and kidneys
Pharyngeal slits develop into functional respiratory gills
86
What make vertebrata different?
Dorsal nerve chord partially protected by cartilage
Notochord present
Respiratory gills protected by cartilage
Ex. Lamprey
87
What make gnathostomata different?
```
Duplication of 4 sets of his genes
Cartilage skeletons taking on role of notochord
Developed hinged jaws
Forebrain enlarged
Paired limbs
Ex. Sharks and rays
```
88
What make Osteichthyans different?
Notochord is broken up between vertebrates = disks
89
What sepertated the tetrapods from the sarcopterygii??
Four feet - in place of pectoral and pelvic fins, have limbs with digits
Limbs can support weight on land and digits can transmit force to the groups
Also had a neck with two vertebrae
90
What are modern day basal tetrapods?
Amphibians
91
What are the major amphibian clades?
Urodela: salamanders
Anurans: frogs
Apodans: weird worm things
92
What separates tetrapods from aminota?
```
Amniotic egg: four specialized membrane
Embryonic development independent of aquatic environment
Rib cage ventilation
Urea/Uric acid
Waterproofing skin
```
93
What are the four membranes for an amniotic egg?
Amnion cavity and fluid
Yolk (proteins, lipids...)
Allantosis (Uric acid waste)
Chorion (gas exchange)
94
What are prototheria?
```
First almost mammals
Monotremata
Leathery egg shells
Milk from modified sweat glands on mothers belly
Ex. Platypus
```
95
What are metatheria?
```
Between mammals
Marsupials
Short gestation
Born early stage development
Drag selves to abdominal pouch
```
96
What are eutharia?
Placental mammals
| Viviparous: advanced stage development before borne
97
What is precocial and altricial?
Precocial: born ready to go
Altricial: born helpless
98
What makes mammalia different from amniota?
Milk
Diphyodont (two teeth sets) and heterodont (different teeth types)
Endothermic and diaphragm
Hair and far layer under skin
99
What separates primates?
Hand and feet adapted for grasping
Partial to fully opposable thumbs
Skin ridges on fingers
Overlapping visual fields of forward facing eyes along with excellent hand eye coordination
100
What does anagenesis mean?
Series of changes that occur in a single lineage of species without branching to create additional species
101
What were the different groups of hominins leading to Homo sapiens?
Ardipithicus
Paranthropus
Australopithecus - Homo sapiens
102
What made Australopithecus different?
More upright and fingers less made for grasping
| Body development
103
What occurred after australopithicus to lead to Homo sapiens?
Brain development
104
Define cladogenesis and adaptive radiation
Cladogenesis: splitting of parent species into two distinct species
Adaptive radiation: origin of many species from a single common ancestor
105
What made hominins different from primates?
Reduced canine teeth, relatively flat faces, more upright, more bipedal
106
What occurred 3Ma ago?
```
Earth entered a cooling period
Wooded areas became savanna
Food was more scarce
Developed an active life to stay hydrated and obtain food
Developed sweat glands to stay cool
```
107
What occurred with bigger brains?
Required more energy so developed food preparation or cooking
108
What was required to survive during the population crash and where was it found?
Shelter, protein, and carbohydrates
| Mossel bay
