Final Flashcards
5 Canons of Rhetoric
- Invention
- the creative process
- developing and refining
- content and structure
- developing and refining
- the creative process
Supporting material
answers the questions your audience has during your speech
Why should I trust you
Says who
Why does this matter
Functions of Support
helps your audience understand, remember, and accept you argument
adds enjoyment
Using Supporting Materials
Balance two competing interests: Brevity detail short and sweet and to the point but have enough information to make your connections and keep your audience focused
Types of Supporting Materials
Statistics
Examples
Testimonies
examples
Versatile and powerful
Most effective when we Construct concrete, understandable, persuasive, and memorable message
Real examples are usually most effective
Help in inductive reasoning
using examples effectively
Relevant On trend -Not atypical Vivid and specific Identifiable personal
types of examples
Brief 1-2 sentences extended Anecdote Parables Real hypothetical *** get definitions for these terms
Statistics
we need to use them in ethical manner
Averages, percentages, totals, quantitative information
Need to be carful
Know what you are comparing or reducing
using statistics effectively
Visual Aids
Round
Present in a meaningful way
Reputable, authoritative, and unbiased
types of testimony
Expert -Need to be most up to date -Avoid extremes -Present qualification Lay/peer prestige -paid endorsers
what type of example is best when your audience had no experience
hypothetical
Types of Team Presentations
Panel
symposium
Forum
Group presentation
panel discussion
Small group
-Typically differ in experience/perspective
discussion (obviously) in front of an audience
Spontaneous
conversational
symposium
Several individuals speak on related topics
Chair or moderator
Respondent or critic
Don’t go over time
-unprofessionalforum
Audience can ask questions
Follows a panel discussion or symposium
-Call and response
-Q &A session
Group Presentation
team of speakers
findings or deliberations
-Introduction, transitions & conclusions
Whole group on stage
listening to several doctors talk about the dangers of drinking soda pop at a health conference
symposium
synergy
product is greater than the sum of parts
working in groups makes your product better than if each of you presented separately
Working in Groups
Two levels
task level
Social level
-Both help with effectiveness and stability
task roles
initiator-gets the group started on a topic or starts you down a new road
Opinion seeker- makes sure each person has their ideas equally represents
social roles
encourager- makes everyone feel that their work is of value
harmonizers- makes sure everyone is at leas at a 5- there is no big interpersonal conflict
Group Roles
Task leader Central negative Tension (stress) reliever Information provider Socio-emotional leader
task leader
Helps set goals and create agendas
Can analyze problems well
Has certain communication qualities and is articulate
Asks for ideas from others
central negative
Plays devil’s advocate
Instigator
Helps obtain best possible answer
tension (stress reliever)
Sensitive to timing
Creates comfort
Doesn’t lead the group off task
Pays attention to the tension in the group
information provider
Most shared role
Knowledgeable of things that pertain to group
Uses intelligence to fight enemies of the group
socio-emotional leader
Well liked
Supports others
Empathizes with others and is a peacemaker
Provides a good balance to the task leader
Now What?
FORMING- gathering ideas
STORMING- conflit ok-trying to define the goals and set boundaries and rules
NORMING- enforce rules
PERFORMING- present you information, have achieved your goal
ADJOURNING-say thank you, appreciate and recognize the members
the good vs. bad of group work
good: “Two heads are better than one”
pride in work
bad: “Too many cooks in the kitchen”
groupthink
groupthink
-It’s easy to agree with the majority When everyone agrees, good ideas go to waste Why it happens: -it saves time -It prevents real thought -It avoids conflict
How to work in a group
Determine your roles
Work as as safety net
-Have each member become a content expert
Familiarize yourself with your members intros and conclusions in case of emergency
Visuals are Not Just In The Moment
Presentations precede you and exist beyond you
Presentational Aids Fundamentals
Your aid is not the main attraction
Your aid cannot function without you
A bad aid is worse than none at all
You should never have to apologize for a presentational aid
Benefits of Visual Aids
Increase comprehension
Make your speech more memorable
Create interest
Show the audience where to look
Layout
impacts appeal
if it is laid out in an interesting fashion it can hold attention better
impacts understanding
color
impacts understanding
different colors effect how people react and cause automatic brain responses
Presentation aids should be
NICE
Neat
Interesting
Clear
Effective
Defining Persuasion
The process of changing, shaping, or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors.
At times, this can be harder
Three Audience Types
Receptive
Neutral
Unreceptive/hostile
Receptive Audience
Rapport and common ground
Clear goals
Emotional examples
Call for action
neutral audience
Interest and attention
Rapport and common beliefs
Appeal to needs of loved ones
Modest goals
hostile audience
Be subtle Rapport and common beliefs Credibility and sources Underlying concerns and values Acknowledge others modest goals
whit what type of audience should you acknowledge others
unreceptive
with what type of audience should you appeal to the needs of loved ones?
neutral
problems in persuasion
Questioning the speaker
Misinterpreting the message
Tunes you out
Seeks a second opinion
Approaches to Persuasion
Coactive approach Built on strong reason and evidence -bridging -connect ourselves with the audience “we” -support -We are all in this together Combative -name calling and threats, insults -Distance -Threats Expressivistic approach -not a good approach
persuasive questions
Must have two sides
Thai kitchen is the best Thai restaurant
Three Types of Questions (or Propositions/ Claims)
Question of Fact
Question of Value
Question of Policy
Questions of Fact
Truth Claims (claiming something as fact- not something that is proven as fact) Structure topically -Primacy -Recency who killed JFK the world will end in 2012
Questions of Value
Right or wrong, better, best, worst 2pt organizational pattern -Set standard -Fulfill the standard diet Mtn. Dew is the best breakfast drink comprehensive finals are unfair
Questions of Policy
arguing the that the audience should Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Problem Solution Problem Cause Solution Comparative Advantage Refutational Approach you should go to prom
Problem Based Patterns
Problem solution -2 pts. -Problem and solution Problem cause solution -3 pts. -Problem -Cause -solution
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
ATTENTION NEED SATISFACTION VISUALIZATION SELL (CALL TO ACTION)
Comparative Advantage
Friendly audience
main points= issues/plans
Advantages and disadvantages
Process of elimination structure
Refutational Approach
Hostile audience Mainpoints= issue I. Issue #1 why important Glad that they are concerned What this side argues Why your side in most correct Plenty of support and experts
what is a fallacy?
Larson (2007)
“Believable arguments or premises that are based on invalid reasoning”
“Keep in mind that a logical fallacy is not necessarily false, but its process of inference is invalid”
Post Hoc (fallacy)
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
(After this, therefore, because of this)
Because one event follows another,
The first event is assumed to be the cause of the second, this happens without thorough research to actually demonstrate a cause and effect
A occurs before B
Therefore, A is the cause of B
Non Sequitur (fallacy)
“It does not follow”
Stating a conclusion based on something that does not strictly follow from the claim
Ad Hominem (fallacy)
- An attack against an individual instead of against his or her position on the issue (larson, 2007)
- Devalues the statement without actually addressing situation
Straw Man (fallacy)
The persuader manufactures and defeats a weak argument that the other side “supposedly makes”
Ad Populum (fallacy)
Bandwagon fallacies
This is a fallacious argument that appeals to whatever is popular at the time. Also can be group think if on a smaller scale
Person A claims that “everyone is doing it” therefore, it should be done
False Dilemma-Bifurcation (fallacy)
Either X is true/best or Y is true/best
Choose one of two options, when in reality, there are a variety of possible answers/sides to an argument
Hasty Generalization (fallacy)
An argument that takes a characteristic from a sample population and attributes it to tan entire population without any further research
(stereotyping)
Slippery Slope (fallacy)
If W happens, X will automatically follow. Y will follow that and so on
If we don’t stop tuition from rising now, it will be $50,000 in two years, then no students will come here and all professors will leave
not supporting you claims
Red Herring (Fallacy)
Distraction
- Topic A is under discussion
- Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to –topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A)
- Topic A is abandoned
Appeal to Tradition/Authority (fallacy)
Good or right because it is old
Appeal to a popular figure/authority
-Might not be authority on topic
Every strong government has always placed the focus on military funding first.
Circular Argument
Someone uses what they are trying to prove as part of the proof of that thing
the bible is the word of God because it says it is the word of God
drinking alone will cause you to die on the side of the road
slippery slope
Credibility—Ethos
Initial- when you first walk up to give a presentation
Derived- attained during your presentation
Lasting- when your audience reflects on your presentation afterwards
Initial->derived->lasting->[repeat] (circular effects)
types of credibility
Competence-seems to know what they are doing
Trustworthiness- seems reliable
Dynamism- seems enthusiastic and excited to be there
charisma
-attractiveness (appearance, attitude, hygiene)
-talent (rehearse)
Positive motivational appeal
Benefit to our life
Outweighs the costs
Negative motivational appeal
Fear of not responding
Hurt loved one
Real and close at hand
high speaker credibility
Emotional Appeals—Pathos
Pleasure and pain
Dominance and powerlessness
Arousal and non arousal
Pleasure and Pain
(giving pleasure or avoiding pain) Material items Achievement Popularity Success
Dominance and powerlessness
(controlling your life vs. someone else controlling you) Safety Fear Guilt intimidation
Arousal or non arousal
(having it causes arousal not having it means no arousal)
Sex
Love
excitement
Pathos Done Well
Concrete God/devil terms (things all holy or all evil) nonverbal visual images vivid language Variety of emotions big myths
Principles/Theory
Consistency Social judgment Cognitive dissonance Reasoned action Planned behavior Gradual change approach
Consistency principle
selective exposure
we’re more likely to believe things that line up with our beliefs, attitudes and values
BUT we’re also less likely to believe arguments that challenge them
Social Judgement Theory
links to consistency; we’re always comparing our beliefs, attitudes, and values to what we hear
those comparisons lie in three latitudes: acceptance, rejection, and non commitment
acceptance
we think things are more in line than they are; reinforces beliefs
rejection
we think things are more different than they are
non-commitment
the greatest attitude and values change happens when we’re in this stage because we’re unbiased and haven’t made up our minds
cognitive dissonance
refers to the work we have to do to make our beliefs attitudes and values line up again. When our beliefs and actions do not align, here are strategies we use to fix that error:
- attacking the source
- focusing on certain parts of the message (selective exposure)
- seek new information
- ceasing to listen
- changing our mind
gradual change approach
magnitude of change
we’re more likely to change our BAV’s when the change called for is gradual
persuasion is best when change is slow
set reasonable goals
Theory of reasoned action
all about how attitudes may influence our behavior
there are two factors that influence our decisions: your attitudes and subjective norms (i.e. wha tis considered socially acceptable; this is why bandwagon appeals work). these factors also influence our behavior
theory of planned behavior
adds in perceived behavioral control; need to make sure the audience understands that why can do something
inoculation effect
if I have an opinion I’m more reluctant to change
claim
argument
data
evidence
warrent
justification of leaping form data to claim
inductive and deductive reasoning
backing
additional support to warrent
qualifiers
indicate strength- “probably” “certainly”
rebuttals
counter-argument
yoga pants aren’t pants unless you are at the gym…
inductive reasoning
specific to general
reasoning from a parallel case
similar situation
reasoning from authorities
experts agree
sign reasoning
one observable attribute= truth
causal reasoning
cause/effect
deductive reasoning
general to specific
ethos
ethical/credibility
pathos
emotional
logos
logical
semantics
refers to the meaning we attach to language
pragmatics
the study of the relationship between language and its users
syntax
refers to the rules that govern the way we combine words into phrases and sentences
phonology
the description of the speech sounds of a language and the way these sounds change when combined with other sounds
denotation
dictionary definition
the specific, generally agreed upon definition of a word
connotation
connotative meaning of a word refers to all the feelings and attitudes associated with or implied by the word
depending upon your experiences, a particular word may evoke positive, negative, or neutral thoughts and feelings you associate with the word
bypassing
occurs when a receiver attaches a different meaning to a word than the sender intended
denotative-denotative bypassing
occurs when the sender intends one denotation for a word while the receiver attaches another
denotative-connotative bypassing
occurs when the sender intends one denotation while the receiver attaches an unintended connotative meaning
connotative-denotative bypassing
occurs when the sender intends to convey feelings, usually in an indirect or figurative way, while the receiver attaches a literal meaning
connotative-connotatieve bypassing
occurs when the sender implies one meaning while the receiver infers another
your first presentational aid
is yourself
-movement and dress of the speaker
can demonstrate tasks or actions
materials, equipment, and physical models
handouts
all the audience to take a useful record of information for the speaking situation
be careful of when to hand it out
triangle of meaning
as communicators we must use techniques that increase the chances that our listeners will assign to our symbols the meaning we intend
appropriate language
suits or fits a particular purpose, listener, and occasion and helps meet the demands of oral communication
clear language
when listeners attach to a message the same meanings and feeling the speaker intends
accurate language
by using words that express the exact meaning you intend
imagery
words and phrases that appeal to our senses create imagery
appeal to our five basic senses
and kinesthetic, systemic, and thermal imageries
synecdoche
uses part of a concept to stand for the concept
metonymy
uses a word associated with the concept to stand for the concept
