Final Flashcards
Specificity of Learning
- what you learn depends on what you practice
- ex) practicing soccer in all weather, noisy fans, etc
“home-field advantage”
- sensory feedback is specific to certain types or locations of practice
- later performance is more successful when same sensory info is available
Learning requires…?
- changes in movement patterns in hopes that the performance becomes better
- necessary to experiment with new movements
To separate conflicting practice goals, provide both…
practice and test sessions
during practice sessions…?
- avoid repeating
- try different styles
- eliminate inappropriate patterns
- performance quality is not critical
during test sessions…?
- after several minutes of practice
- perform as well as possible using best movement pattern
learners compiling their own tests is helpful because…
- can assess own progress
- is motivating and educational
perceptual skills: research shows experts…?
tend to seek out more specific and narrowly focused info much earlier in the action than non-experts
Benefits of Practice: Attention
- performance suffers when overall demand exceeds the available attentional capacity
- reduced attention is demanded by tasks that have been well learned
Reduced Effector Competition
- trying to do two different things at the same time causes interference
- ex: patting head and rubbing tummy
Motor Program Building
- ex: gear shift; starts as several steps controlled by different motor programs
- practice causes it to become a single motor program
Benefits of Practice: Error Detection
- can point out errors and suggest corrections
- learner learns to detect and analyze errors: self-sufficiency
Fitts’ Stage One
- identify goal
- verbal/cognitive abilities
- good sense of environment
- sequencing previously learned movements
- gains in proficiency are rapid and large
- self talk (high attention demands)
Fitts’ Stage Two:Fixation
- more effective movement patterns
- motor program is built (for quick movements)
- movement produced feedback (slow movements)
- performance improves steadily
- inconsistency from trial to trial (trying new moves)
- closed skills become more stereotypic
- open skills become more adaptable
- reduce energy costs
- less self-talk
Fitts’ Stage Three: Autonomous Stage
- expert level
- high perceptual anticipation
- quick processing of environment
- programs longer movement patterns
- decreased load on attention
- no self talk
Fitts’ Stages
- heavy emphasis on perceptual-motor learning
- heavy emphasis on how cognitive processes invested in motor performance change with practice
Bernstein’s Stages
-identifies stages of learning from a combined motor control and bio mechanical perspective
Bernstein’s Stage One
- reduce degrees of freedom:
- reduce movement of unessential body parts
- focus on degrees of freedom that provide max control of basic aspects of action
Bernstein’s Stage Two
- release degrees of freedom
- release is useful for power or speed
Bernstein’s Stage Three
- exploit passive dynamics
- gravity, momentum
- movement becomes maximally skilled
Limitations of Fitts’ and Berstein’s Stages
- neither describes learning as discrete, linear stages
- progression is not categorical
- Fitts considered performance change to be regressive and progressive
- some may never acheive Fitts final stage
- some skills contradict bernstein stage 2
Absence of practice
- detrimental to performance
- forget motor skills after not practicing
long term retention depends on…?
- nature of task
- discrete tasks: forgotten quickly
- continuous tasks: retained well
warm-up decrement
- physiological factor brought on by time away from the task
- eliminated when performer performs a few trials
- important for tasks where the performer must perform very well on first attempt
Warm-Up Decrement: Set
- collection of psychological activites
- focus, postural adjustments.. etc
- reminding the body what the motion should feel like: taking a few practice swings etc
Skill Transfer
- gain or loss in ability to perform one task as a result of practice or experience in another task
- “generalization”
Motor Transfer as learning progresses
- transfer is best applied when learner is just beginning
- as learner becomes more skilled transfer should drop
is Motor Transfer big or small?
- small
- transfer that does appear is low-positive
Can you transfer basic abilities?
No
-it is better to practice the eventual goal skills rather than quickness or balance etc
Is breaking discrete skills into smaller tasks beneficial?
No,
-can cause more harm than good, disrupting essential features of the action
Quick actions are controlled by open or closed loop?
open, decisions are programmed in advance
Progressive Part Practice
- practicing pieces of movement
- beneficial if elements of movement are difficult to sequence and many in number
Through the 1980’s, it was thought that the brain consisted of…?
many specialized modules that were hardwired from birth to perform different jobs
-brain’s modules do not do their jobs in isolation
The Plastic Brain
- brain’s wiring is malleable throughout lifetime
- connections are constantly being made and updated
- brain can reorganize after damage to move functions to undamaged areas
- restricting certain senses causes brain to adapt
2 causes of Stroke (Cerebral Vascular Accident)
- ischemia
- hemmorrage
Ischemia
blockage of a cerebral vessel
-most common (80% of strokes)
Hemmorrage
rupture of a cerebral blood vessel
-blood released out of vascular space, which cuts off pathways and leads to pressure injuries
Stroke Management Acute Care
- side and cause of stroke
- preventing progression
- preventing secondary medical complications
- treating acute neurological symptoms
t-PA
- tissue plasminogen activator
- protein that helps breakdown clots
- must be given within 3-6 hours of onset of symptoms
- 1 in 3 have resolved/improved symptoms
Gains in function after stroke attributed to…?
-spontaneous recovery in brain
-response to interventions that influence neural mechanisms and adaptations
(difficult to distinguish between the two)
Neurological Impairments of Stroke
- hemiparesis/hemiplegia: mild weakness to complete paralysis of side of body opposite of CVA
- most do not regain full movement or function of upper extremity
Common impairments of stroke
- aphasia
- incontinence
- apraxia
- depression
- cognitive deficits
major factors influencing stroke recovery
-coexisting disease influences: diabetes, heart disease, obesity
time frame for stroke recovery
-most rapid in 1-3 months up to a year
a person with hemiplegia typically has….?
- decreased trunk control
- poor bilateral integration
- impaired automatic postural control
poor trunk control can lead to…?
- risk of falls
- decreased visual feedback
- decreased limb movement
- less tolerance for sitting and standing
- swallowing impairment
common complications of hemiparesis
- adhesions
- tendinitis
- bursitis
shoulder subluxation
- malalignment of glenohumoral joint
- secondary to spasticity or weakness
homonymous hemianopsia
- most common stroke visual disturbance
- visual defect effecting half of the visual field in both eyes
unilateral neglect
failure to notice or respond to stimuli on one side of visual space
neglect is almost always associated with damage to which side of brain?
-right hemisphere, parietal lobe lesions
learned nonuse
person notices negative consequences of efforts to use the affected limb
- reinforced by successful compensatory use of unaffected limb
- constraint induced movement therapy
coordinated movement progression for stroke treatment
- unilateral activities of affected limb
- bilateral simultaneous activities
- bilateral alternating activities
which effects of stroke are most difficult to rehabilitate?
motor planning deficits
-emphasis on compensatory skills rather than remediation
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
insult to the brain, not degenerative or congenital, caused by an external physical force
Who is most likely to sustain a TBI?
males aged 16-35
-second most likely: those over 75
most common cause of TBI?
Motor vehicle accident
- drivers aged 15-19
- second most common cause: falls
Positioning after TBI
- pelvis first and most important
- upright positioning helps facilitate brain arousal
TBI early therapy
gross motor activities first
- minimize demands on weakened cognitive capacities
- period of relatively rapid improvement
Spinal Cord Injury (SCI)
-rare
-10,000 people per year in US
-most common in males 16-30
Male to female ratio: 4:1
most common cause of SCI?
MVA
Spinal shock immediately after injury
- reflexes below level of injury are not present
- hours or weeks
- after it subsides, reflexes return and become hyperactive
quadriplegia
- damage to cervical segments of spinal cord
- impairment in arms, legs, pelvic organs
paraplegia
damage to thoracic, lumbar, or sacral segments of cord
-arm function usually spared
complete injury
no sensation or movement below site of injury
incomplete injury
some sensation or control of movement below site of injury
Sensory/Motor recovery in SCI
- most return in post 6 months
- rate of recovery is minimal after one year
SCI impairments
- respiration
- sudden increase/decrease in BP
- pressure ulcers
- bowel/bladder dysfunction
- pain
- fatigue
- spasticity
SCI treatment
- medical stability
- environmental controls
- limb joint ROM
- hand splinting
- maintain tenodesis grasp
quadriplegia treatment
- some require breathing device
- mouth sticks help
- teach patients to direct own care
- mostly upper extremity work
paraplegia treatment
- most independent in self maintenance
- moderate assistance
- some trunk control
- some can walk
Repetition
- not necessarily practice
- only successful to a degree
- must activate important components of info processing
important aspects of practice
- motivation for learning
- instructions
- demonstrations
- mental practice
intrinsic motivation determined by…
autonomy
competence
social acceptance
augmented feedback
feedback from external source
-positive augmented feedback can boost motor learning, even if it isn’t true
explanation of instructions is most helpful in terms of…
biomechanical or physical bases
-ex: transfer of momentum or action-reaction forces
more effective to instruct attention to…
result rather than aspects of the movement
how often to practice
distributing practice sessions are more effective than concentrating long practice sessions
massed practice
little rest between trials
- reduces recovery from fatigue
- performance degrades
- interferes with learning
distributed practice
much more rest, even as much rest as long as the practice period
rest periods for discrete tasks
-difficult to make rest periods short enough to affect performance
rest periods for continuous practice
- fatigue-like states have more time to build up between trials
- decreasing rest between trials has larger effects
practice distribution effects
- longer rest periods have positive effects on both performance and learning
- rest periods have a cost: considered “lost time”
schema theory
learner acquires a set of schemas that relate to the surface features of a motor task to the parameter values necessary to produce the actions
variable practice is better or worse than constant practice?
better
- enhances generalizability
- enhances development of schemas
blocked practice more effective than random during…
acquisition
random practice is more effective than blocked practice…
for retention tests
elaboration hypothesis
random practice trials make tasks more meaningful
forgetting hypothesis
“forgetting” facilitates learning
feedback
info provided during the movement
inherent feedback
info provided as a natural consequence of making an action
-you can perceive this info directly, without special methods
augmented feedback (extrinsic)
- feedback from outside source
- supplements inherent info
knowledge of results
- redundant with inherent info
- important when learners can’t detect their own errors
- learning doesn’t occur is there is no feedback
performance and learning is enhanced when the learner’s attention is …
external
guidance hypothesis
the learner can become dependent on feedback instead of using internally generated processes to keep the movement on target
too much feedback
- info processing & memory is limited
- too much is not useful
- focus feedback on what error is mot fundamental
precision of feedback
quantitative feedback is most helpful
faded feedback
- lots of feedback in early practice
- instructor gradually reduces feedback frequency as skill gets better
bandwidth feedback
decision to provide a learner with feedback is based on the acceptability level of the performance
-no feedback given is the performance falls within an acceptable level
summary feedback
feedback is withheld for series of trials
- summarized for the entire series is summarized for the learner
- more effective than “every-trial” feedback
- optimal number of trials
average feedback
- variant feedback of summary feedback
- receive average scores
- slightly more effective than summary feedback
when to give feedback
while movement is ongoing, especially for long durations of movements
concurrent feedback
- delivered during the ongoing movement
- increases practice performance
- poor retention test performance
physical guidance during practice
- learner can rely too strongly on it
- learner doesn’t have the opportunity to feel and correct errors
instantaneous feedback
- feedback given immediately after a movement is finished
- can be detrimental to learning
- may block the learner from processing the inherent feedback
focus of hippotherapy
gait training, balance, postural control, strengthening, and range of motion
therapy dogs
- provide comfort
- temperament
service dogs
working dogs that help people with specific disabilities
importance of play
- intelligent animals deprived of play do not develop into normal adults
- have learning issues, poor social skills, aggressive
animals engage in the most play when…
educational demands are highest
-play is not a diversion from more productive processes
animals only play when they are not…
stressed
-animals won’t play unless they feel safe
play is more exploratory and open ended than work
- encourages novel movements which increases neural activity
- more ways to move = more ways to learn
play has a more global effect on the brain than work
-play activates brain derived neurotrophic factor which stimulates nerve growth
