Final Flashcards
how many lobes does the cerebrum have and what are they?
- frontal
- parietal
- temporal
- occipital
what determines the structure and function of the nervous system?
genes and your environment throughout your life and your life experiences that can alter the circuits in your brain.
this lobe is made of the anterior prefrontal cortex and the posterior motor strip
frontal lobe
what does the prefrontal cortex do?
personality, assigns emotions to music, remembers musical melodies, recognizes mistakes in musical tunes, gatekeeper of inhibitions, keeps tract of daily routines, controls cognitions, govern attention to thought, creates association between words, assigns meaning to the words we choose, controls how we act and react in our environment, evaluates, synthesizes, and analyzes ideas and concepts, elaborates thought, assesses value, figures exact mathematica calculations, utilizes language expressively
humunculus
visual map of the brain showing where brain stimulation corresponds to body movement.
which areas of the body have more areas of the brain dedicated to them?
those that need finer, more controlled body movement like movements that are voluntary and goal-directed
what happens if there are lesions or damage to the frontal lobe?
inability to remember steps in a sequence, inability to appropriate social action, decreased flexibility in thinking, poor judgement, personality shifts, mood swings, inability to understand humor, difficulty in problem solving, paralysis if it’s the motor strip
consists of the anterior sensory strip and the posterior parietal lobe
parietal lobe
function of the sensory cortex
receives info from spinal cord about touch pressure and pain
perception of body parts and their movement
what are functions of the parietal lobe?
integrates info into a whole concept, perform binary operations, makes comparisons and analogies, governs visual attention, manipulates objects in space and rotates objects mentally, estimates calculations, appraises cause and effect relationships
does the parietal lobe develop sooner or later in males versus females
sooner in males
what can lesions or damage to the parietal lobe result in?
hand-eye coordination problems, problems integrating individual ideas into whole concepts, inability to focus on one object at a time, inability to put a name to an object, or find words to express an idea, problems with reading, inability to draw, lack of sensation
what does the temporal lobe function in?
hearing, senses rhythm, remembers auditory input, percieves visual detail, catalogs and classifies info, takes in sensory input having to do with speech and hearing, governs sense of identity, contains diencephalon
what can lesions or damage to the temporal lobe result in?
auditory deficiencies, inability to recognize faces, aphasia (problem with spoken word) inability to classify objects, selective amnesia, short-term memory loss, persistent talking, aggressiveness, childish behavior in children, inability to write, inability to recognize or locate body parts, inability to recognize self
what are the functions of the occipital lobe?
controls vision and visual fields, manages reading ability, governs some visual memories
what can lesions or damage to the occipital lobe lead to?
blindness, compromised visual field cuts, visual illusions, inability to locate object in the environment, word blindness, inability to recognize illustrations, difficulty discerning subtle movements, difficulty discriminating color, compromised night and peripheral vision
what does the cerebellum function in?
controls coordination and speed of voluntary movements, governs balance and equilibrium, controls memory of reflexes, governs proprioceptions, maintains posture, receives and interprets olfactory information
what can problems with the cerebellum result in?
difficulty in walking and talking, irregular gait, slurred speech, lack of coordination, inability to move quickly, inability to reach into space and grab an object, uncoordinated gross movements, tremors, dizziness
this brain structure is continuous with the spinal cord, holds the fourth ventricle, and has several vital centers that are essential to life
medulla oblongata
what are the vital centers and the functions of these in the medulla oblongata?
respiratory center - regulates subconscious control of breathing
cardiac center - regulates heart beat
vasomotor center - regulates blood pressure by controlling diameter of blood vessels
what does the pons function in?
relays sensory info between cerebellum and cerebrum, governs motor control, analyzes sensory input, assists in autonomic controls, controls levels of consciousness and arousal
damages to the pons can result in
loss of dreams, visual and auditory illusions, bipolar disorder, psychoses and psychotic breaks
what things are within the limbic lobe?
amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, RAS, pineal body, and basal ganglia
what are the functions of the limbic lobe?
integrates smell and thoughts and emotions associated with those smells, controls complex emotions such as rage, jealousy, deep-seated fear, shame
what does the amygdala do?
governs high-order emotions - guilt, regret, panic, embarrassment, nightmares, creates long-term memory via emotional attachment to info that passes through it
what area of the brain tends to be larger in males and can be affected by PTSD
amygdala
what does the thalamus do?
switch-board of the brain, sorts and relays and updates all incoming info, governs awareness and deep concentration
what are of the brain is considered the oldest part of the limbic lobe?
thalamus
what does the hypothalamus do?
controls sexual desires/orgasms, physical responses to emotions, governs homeostatic mechanisms, secretes hormones,
what types of homeostatic mechanisms does the hypothalamus control?
pituitary regulation, feeding reflex, hydration, hormonal balance, blood pressure, mood, sleep cycles, hunger, salt cravings, bladder function, energy levels, wakefulness, body temp, ovarian cycles, serotonin and noradrenalin levels
what does the hippocampus do?
plays important role in learning, separates factual from trivial info, works with amygdala to regulate thalamic network, recognizes novelty and ritual (things that are new and old), processes input, but has limited capacity and can block input if exceeded, guides spatial relationships and orienteering
what part of the brain is responsible for navigation and orientation
subiculum
what does the reticular activating system (RAS) do?
controls amount and flow of sensory input (waking/dreaming, alertness, fight or flight), more developed in women
what does the pineal body do?
secretes melatonin, influences rhythm and cycles, regulates neurotransmitters, lesions and tumors lead to premature sexual maturity
what area of the brain is responsible for jet lag?
pineal body
master gland of hormone regulation, controls physical and sexual maturation
pituitary gland
band of neurons between the right and left lobes, connecting the right and left hemispheres
corpus collosum
what does the corpus callosum do?
promotes more diverse, but less efficient thinking, forms ceilling of the ventricles where CSF is produced, facilitates cross-brain communication
composed of 200 million neurons and is thicker in females than in males
corpus callosum
what can lesions or problems with the corpus collosum cause?
inabilty to see consequeces of ones actions, split-brain syndrome (ranging from slight learning disability to severe mental and physical challenges)
sensory information is relayed from …… through …… ….. …….., and then the information is sent to various regions of the ….. ……
periphera
lower brain centers
cerebral cortex
why can electrodes placed on the scalp detect changes in brain acitivty?
sensory info is relayed from peripheral through lower brain centers, and then the info is sent to various regions of the cerebral cortex
recording of the brains electrical activity
electroencephalogram (EEG)
what are the four simple rhythms that can be detected by an EEG?
alpha, beta, delta, theta
what is the typical frequency and the typical amplitudes of the alpha waves?
hz (frequencies) - 8-13
uV (amplitudes) - 20-200
what is the typical frequencies and amplitudes of beta waves?
hz - 13-30
uV - 5-10
what is the typical frequencies and amplitudes of delta waves
hz - 1-5
uV - 20-200
what is the typical frequencies and amplitudes of theta waves?
hz - 4-8
uV - 10
pattern of adult who is awake but relaxed with closed eyes, females higher than males, likely higher in ‘outgoing’ subjects, vary within the subject’s attention to mental tasks performed with closed eyes
alpha
occur in individuals who are alert and attentive to external stimuli or exert specific mental effort or when fallen into a deep sleep
beta
low frequency waves that increase during sleep, as move to REM sleep, these decrease
delta
low frequency waves that increase during sleep, as move to REM these increase, will increase briefly during emotional stress
theta
what is the order of waves from the conscious to the subconscious mind?
beta waves, alpha waves, theta waves, delta waves
normal waking state of consciousness. Alertness, concentration, focus, cognition, and the five physical senses.
beta waves
deep relaxation and light meditation usually with eyes closed. Relaxation, visualization, creativity and super learning
alpha waves
usually light sleep, including REM dream state. Deep meditation, intuition, memory and vivid visual imagery.
theta waves
usually deep sleep, dreamless state, transcendental meditation, automatic self-healing, immune system function
delta waves
what is the mnemonic device to memorize the cranial nerves
old opie occasionally tries trigonometry and feels very floomy vague and hypoactive
what is the order of the cranial nerves?
I. olfactory II. optic III. occulomotor IV. trochlear V. trigeminal VI. Abducens VII. Facial VIII. vestibulocochlear/auditory IX. glossopharyngeal X. Vagus XI. Accessory (spinal accessory) XII. hypoglossal
what is cranial nerve 1 and what does it do?
olfactory, smell
what is cranial nerve 2 and what does it do?
optic - vision
cranial nerve 3 and function
occulomotor - eyeball movement, pupil accomodation
cranial nerve 4 and function
trochlear - eyeball movement
cranial nerve 5 and function
trigeminal - sensory for the head, face and teeth. motor for chewing muscles
cranial nerve 6 and function
abducens - eyeball movement
cranial nerve 7 and function
facial - sensory for taste on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue. motor for facial expressions and saliva secretion
cranial nerve 8 and function
vestibulocochlear(auditory) - equilibrium and hearing
cranial nerve 9 and function
glossopharyngeal - sensory for taste on the posterior 1/3 of the tongue, and motor for the pharynx (swallowing) and saliva secretion
cranial nerve 10 and function
vagus - sensations from and movements of the visceral organs
cranial nerve 11 and function
spinal accessory - larynx (voice production) and movements of the neck and shoulders
cranial nerve 12 and function
hypoglossal - tongue movements
the functional cell of the nervous system
neurons
support cells for neurons
neuroglial cells
what are the ways in which neurons can be classified?
structure, function, direction of impulse transmission
what are the ways that a neuron can be classified based on structure?
unipolar, bipolar, multipolar
what are the ways that a neuron can be classified functionally?
sensory, integrated, motor
what are the ways that neurons can be classified based upon their direction of impulse transmission?
afferent, efferent
bundle of axons outside the CNS that must be insulated within a myelin sheath. white matter
nerve
cell bodies clustered together outside the CNS. gray matter.
ganglion
bundle of axons in the CNS. white matter.
tract
bundle of cell bodies in the CNS. gray matter
nucleus
soma
cell body of a neuron. perikaryon (surrounds nucleus)
nucleoplasm
special cytoplasm of the nueron that tends to be richer, thicker, and denser than other cytoplasms
neurofibril
rods of protein that help maintain the neurons shape. function in transport and are found where dendrites move away from the cell body
nssile fibers
unique combination of ribosomes and rough ER. protein factories that look like dark spots in the nucleoplasm
primarily what you see in a slide of nervous tissue. cover capillaries and form the blood brain barrier
astrocytes
what are the types of neuroglial cells and what do they do?
they support the neurons, they are: astrocytes, neurilemmocytes, oligodendrocytes, enpendymal cells, and microglial cells
form the myelin sheath on axons of neurons in the PNS
neurilemmocytes
form the myelin sheath in the CNS
oligodendrocytes
line the cavities of the spinal cord and brain and form the cerebrospinal fluid
ependymal cells
phagocytes of the nervous system
microglial cells
how are nerves held together?
in bundles with a connective tissue covering.
groups of nerves
fascicles
fascicles are covered in a layer called the….
perineurium
just outside the myelin sheath of individual axons and covers the entire nerve
endoneurium
enlargement of the spinal cord due to a large number of axons exiting the spinal cord to enervate the upper extremities
cervical enlargement
enlargement of the spinal cord due to a large number of axons exitting the spinal cord to enervate the lower extremities
lumbar enlargement
true ending of the spinal cord
conus medullaris
threadlike connection to the spinal cord to the sacrum - ties the spinal cord down
filum terminale
spinal nerves that extend beyond the spinal cord. where they do a spinal tap
cauda equina
what is the difference between gray matter and white matter?
gray matter is made of somas, dendrites, and proximal regions of some axons that have little myelination while white matter is made mostly of myelin
what two roots combine to form the spinal nerve?
the ventral root and the dorsal root
portion of the spinal cord where axons are sent out of the spinal cord and the soma stay inside. only the motor axons exit.
anterior root
swollen region where the cell bodies of unipolar (all sensory) neurons are crammed into one spot so there is a large swelling.
posterior dorsal root
occurs when anterior and posterior roots merge. very short and squeeze out of the vertebrae and then branch and are renamed
spinal nerves
how many of each type of spinal nerve is there?
8 pairs of cervical nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, 5 pairs of lumbar nerves, 5 pairs of sacral nerves, coccygeal nerves
ramus
branch from a spinal nerve
31 pair of ramus that go back to the spinal cord and give nerve supplies to things around the spinal cord like the meninges, blood vessels, connective tissue, and vertebrae.
meningeal ramus
31 pair of ramus that go to the posterior aspect of the neck and trunk and the muscles and skin of the posterior trunk
dorsal/posterior ramus
rami communicants
anterior 2 branches come off in pairs and regulate and control internal organs. Part of the autonomic nervous system and visceral organs.
the biggest branch of rami. supply anterior lateral trunk, skin and muscles in front, both extremities, very large so it must enter a plexus to reorganize.
anterior/ventral ramus
braidlike region of complex branching and intermingling of adjacent ventral rami
plexus
what are the only ventral rami nerves that do not go through plexuses
t1-t11
why don’t T1-T11 go through plexuses?
because they are intercostal nerves so they go straight to the ariea that they control
neurons in the neck region that supply the skin and muscles of part of the face, neck, top of shoulder, and diaphragm go through this plexus
cervical plexus
nerve supply to the upper extremity and part of the shoulder go through this plexus
brachial plexus
simplest plexus that contains nerve supply to the antierior/lateral trunk, external reproductive organs, upper part of the thigh
lumbar plexus
nerve supply for lower extremities, buttocks and perineum go through this plexus
sacral plexus
what are the extrinsic muscles of the tongue?
genioglossus, hyoglossus platoglossus and styloglossus
where are taste buds found?
in lingual papillae on the tongue
how do the hard and soft palates function in digestion?
they allow you to breathe and chew at the same time
what does the uvula do?
it is the projection at the back of the throat that helps food stay in the mouth until you are ready to swallow
how many baby teeth and adult teeth do people usually develop?
20 baby teeth and 32 adult teeth
what percent of the population lacks wisdom teeth?
35%
what are the different types of teeth and what are they used for?
canines - puncture and shred
incisors - biting teeth
molars - crushing and grinding
why are the gums pink?
because they are made of vascularized epithelium
what are places where vascularized epithelium is found?
gums, lips, nipples, labia, glans penis
how much of saliva is water?
97-99%
what solutes are in saliva?
mucus, electrolytes, lysozyme, IgA, salivary amylase, lingual lipase
why is mucus found in saliva
it binds and lubricates food
what electrolytes are found in saliva?
salt, K+, Na+, Cl-, phosphate and bicarbonate
what is lysozyme?
enzyme that breaks down cells and bacteria
what does salivary amylase do?
enzyme that breaks down starch to glucose units
enzyme that breaks down fats
lingual lipase
what are the two types of salivary glands?
intrinsic and extrinsic
small unencapsulated salivary glands
intrinsic
large, encapsulated salivary glands composed of tubuloacinary glands with a treelike duct system
extrinsic salivary glands
what glands are intrinsic salivary glands
lingual glands, labial glands on the sides of the lips, buccal glands on the sides of the cheeks
what glands are extrinsic salivary glands
parotid salivary glands, submandibular glands, sublingual glands
salivary glands found under the skin anterior to the earlobes
parotid salivary glands
salivary glands located halfway along the body of the mandible
submandibular glands
salivary glands found on the floor of the mouth
sublingual glands
what is the origin insertion and action of the masseter muscle
origin - zygomatic arch
insertion - angle and ramus of the mandible
action - closes the jaw
what is the point where the digestive and respiratory tracts intersect?
the pharynx
what muscles force food downward during swallowing?
pharyngeal constrictor muscles
back of the throat
oropharynx
the cavity where the voice-box is found
laryngeal pharynx
straight, muscular tube that is the pathway through which food travels on its way to the stomach
esophagus
the opening to the stomach
cardiac orifice
what three regions is the wall of the esophagus divided into?
the mucosa, submucosa, and mucosa esterna
layer of the esophagus that has keratinized and non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
mucosa
layer of the esophagus that has esophageal glands that secrete mucus that lubricates the tube
submucosal
layer of the esophagus that is made of skeletal muscle in the upper third, a mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle in the middle third, and smooth muscle in the lower third
mucosa externa layer
how much food can the stomach hold?
from 1-4 liters
what are the gastric juices that the stomach produces mainly made of?
hydrochloric acid and pepsin
the mixture of semi-digested food found after digestion in the stomach
chyme
what are the four regions that the stomach is divided into?
cardiac, fundic, body corpus, pyloric
smallest area of the stomach near the cardiac orifice
cardiac region
area of the stomach superior to the esophageal attachment
fundic region
the largest part of the stomach
body corpus
narrow pouch at the inferior end of the stomach
pyloric region
how long is the small intestines?
from 2.7-4.5m long
the diameter is about 2.5 cm
most of the nutrients of digested food are absorbed into the…
small intestines
what are the three sections of the small intestine?
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
mostly retroperitineal, pancreatic duct, recieves stomach contents, pancreatic juice and bile. it has a higher pH, pancreatic enzymes involved in chemical digestion are here. it is the first 25 cm of the small intestine
duodenum
the next 40% of the intestines after the duodenum. has thick walls and a rich blood supply
jejunum
the last 60% of the small intestine after the jejunum. the walls are thinner, less muscular, and less vascular
ileum
where does most nutrient absorption and digestion occur in the small intestines?
jejunum
where are peyer’s patches found?
ileum of the small intestine
groups of lymphoid tissue in the small intestines involved in finding pathogens and removing them in the intestines
peyers patches
end of the small intestine where the ileum joins the cecum
ileocecal junction
what is the diameter and length of the large intestine
diameter- 6.5 cm
length - 1.5 m
what are the four regions of the large intestine?
cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
blind pouch in the lower right abdominal quadrant. where the appendix is attached
cecum
blind tube populated with lymphocytes 2-7cm
appendix
part of the small intestine between the ileocecal junction and the rectum
colon
what are the four parts of the colon
ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
after the colon, waste passes through the three lateral curves of the rectum. it has transverse rectal folds, or valves, that help it hold feces while passing gas
rectum
last passageway of the small intestines
anal canal
what are the accessory organs of the digestive system?
liver, gallbladder, pancreas
what is the liver?
large organ that plays a key role in detoxification of harmful chemicals, but also secretes bile which helps with digestion.
what is the liver made of?
fenestrated epithelium
how many lobes are in the liver?
4
greenish fluid made of acids, cholesterol, minerals, pigments and phospholipids
bile
what is bilirubin?
pigment made from the breakdown of red blood cells. metabolized to urobilinogen that gives feces its brown color
a pear-shaped organ inferior to the liver that stores and concentrates bile
gallbladder
what are the two functions of the pancreas?
an endocrine and a digestive function
what is the endocrine function of the pancreas?
it regulates blood glucose levels: found in the islets of longerhan
secrete glucagon, a hormone that stimulates the breakdown of glycogen from the liver, in response to low blood sugar. the release of glucose into the blood from the liver increases blood glucose levels
alpha cells
these cells secrete insulin in response to high blood sugar. insulin activates glucose-transporters in the cell membrane that move glucose from the blood into the cell, decreasing blood glucose levels
beta cells
secrete polypeptides that suppress appetite
PP cells/gamma cells
stimulate hunger, burn non-essential fats
epsilon cells
what is the digestive function of the pancreas?
to secrete pancreatic juice which is an alkaline mixture of water, enzymes, zymogens, sodium bicarbonate and electrolytes
large sheets of peritoneum that covers the visceral organs
greater and lesser omentum
what are the functions of the greater and lesser omentums
fat deposition, wound isolation to protect organs, helps hold organs in place
