FINAL Flashcards
Giovanni Gentile’s neo-Hegelian philosophy (Utopia of “harmonious
Italy” in his entry … xxx)
- who: Italian philosopher and educator
- where: italy
- why: gentile’s philosophy envisioned a harmonious italy united under a single will, aligning with fascist goals of national unity and strength
M’s two opposite speeches on race (1934 ≠ 1938; details?)
1934: bari, M spoke out against anti-italian racism, emphasized the unity and strength of the Italian race and opposed the idea of racial superiority (opposed racist ideology), he was trying to distance fascist italy from racial ideologies of nazi germany and promote more inclusive identity
1938: trieste, introduced Manifesto of Race and racial laws, aligning italy’s racial policies more closely with Nazi, promoting idea of Italian racial purity and enacting anti-semitic laws (aligned with nazi racial laws to strengthen the axis alliance with Germany)
battle for lira
1926, aimed to reduce inflation and fix Lira, Italian workers were pressured into accepting wage cuts to match new value of lira to the point where wages fell more than food prices and living standards for working-class Italians rapidly declined
battle for wheat
1925, aimed to increase bread production in italy to reduce need for imports to make country more self-sufficient (successful),
* resulted in sharp decline in italy’s exports like wine, cheeses, and fruit (since there was
limited agricultural space for livestock rearing), also needed more fertilizer for the wheat, increasing imports (quality of their diet was reduced)
* this battle was merely propaganda initiative, but Italy lacked infrastructure and development to achieve goal
why?
1. To boost cereal production to make Italy self-sufficient in grain
2. To reduce the balance of trade deficit
3. To lower the necessity for foreign imports of bread
4. To show Italy as a major powe
battle for land
(1928) aimed to clear marshland to make it suitable for farming, as well as reclaiming land and reducing health risks
Why?
1. To increase the amount of land available for cereal production and help the Battle for Wheat
2. To provide more jobs, reduce unemployment and stimulate demand
3. To improve health by reducing malaria, thereby improving living standards
4. To show dynamic government in action, impressing foreigners
5. To revive rural Italy by alerting the pattern of small farmers at the expense of large estates
battle for births
1927
M wanted Italian population to increase, so he offered loans t married couples, exempt married men with more than 6 children, etc (failure)
why did M do the 4 different battles
aimed to strengthen Italy’s economy and self-sufficiency, including stabilizing the lira, increasing wheat production, boosting birth rates, and reclaiming land
The Lateran pacts / the Concordat
lateran treaty: established Vatican city as an independent state
concordt treaty: made Catholicism the state religion of italy
- who: signed by Mussolini for Italy and Gasparri for the Vatican
- what: agreements between Vatican and Italian state
- when: june 7, 1929 – june 3, 1985- where: rome, italy
- why: resolved roman question and strengthened mussolini’s regime by securing support of catholic church
Margherita Sarfatti
- who: mussolini’s mistress and prominent fascist intellectual
o she worked as art critic in socialist newspaper Avanti!
o Met M in 1911, played a significant role in his power, helped organize march on rome 1922 - what: influential in promoting fascist ideology and mussolinis image, she then worked with popolo d’italia
o i. Italian journalist
ii. Art critic
iii. Patron
iv. Collector
v. Socialite - where: she fled from Italy because of the anti-semitic laws that M made (to Switzerland and then to argentina)
Clara (Claretta) Petacci
- who: mussolini’s long-time mistress
- what: known for her close relationship with Mussolini, clara and Mussolini were executed by a firing squad in giulino di mezzegra, their bodies were hungupside down in Milan as a symbol of their downfall
- when: met Mussolini in april 1932 when she was 20, executed in 1945
The draining of the Pontine marshes (inter alia Sabaudia and Littoria,
today Latina, near Rome)
- what: What: fascist government launched a drive to drain the marshes, clear the vegetation, and settle several hundred families
- when: 1928 fascist government launched major reclamation project
- where: near rome, Italy (sabaudia and littoria)
- why: reduce malaria, create farmland, and symbolize fascist achievements
- how: extensive drainage systems, canals, roads constructed to transform marshes into arable land, project significantly
Social provisions: Corporazioni as “third way” (between what and what?)
- who: created by fascism
i. Presidents: Costanzo Ciano 1939, Dino Grandi 1939 to 1943
b. What: corporatism was created
i. Councilors of the chamber represented different branches of the trade and industry of Italy - when: 1939 to 1943
- what: corporate (refers to the system f economic and social organization established by fascist regime) state as third way between capitalism and socialism
o national unity, economic efficiency, and control - why: vertical association that puts the employers and employees in the same trade (people on bottom put in a weak/defensive position)
i. No chance to make decisions
ii. Brings orders from the top down
o it was meant to be a compromise that avoided the perceived excesses of both capitalism and socialism
Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI)
state owned enterprise aimed at rescuing and restructuring struggling industries during economic crisis (1933)
- global economic downturn of great depression severely impacted industries → IRI created to stabilize economy, save job, maintain production
National
Organization for Maternity and Infancy (ONMI)
organization dedicated to improving maternal and child health
- provided prenatal care, childbirth assistance, nutritional support (1925)
- aimed to increase population and promote public health by providing support for mothers and children (reduce infant mortality, promote higher birth rate, ensure health)
National Fascist
Institute for Social Pensions (INFPS)
offered pension plans, offered insurance against accidents, funded from both employers and employees(1933)
- provide social security and financial stability for workers, particularly in their old age or in event of disability
Balillas (ONB)
- boys fascist youth org (8-14)
- 1926
- Mussolini believed that controlling youth was essential for ensuring future of fascism
Young Italian Girls (Piccole Italiane)
- girls fascist youth group
- 1927
- aimed at preparing young girls for their roles as mothers and supporters of fascist state
- to instill fascist values in girls and promote traditional gender roles
summer camps
- organized for youth as part of fascist regime’s efforts to control and educate younger generation
- 1920s-1940s
- provide structural leisure activities, reinforce fascist ideology, improve fitness
Social provisions: Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro / National After-work
Organization (OND)
- who: established by fascist gov.
- what: OND was state sponsored org. aimed at providing recreational and cultural activities for Italian workers during leisure time, left lasting impact on Italian society by promoting concept of organized leisure and contributing to development of public recreation facilities
o Label pin for OND: label pin worn by members of the OND → label pin served as symbol of affiliation with the OND and represented organization’s role in providing recreational activities for workers
o Message: displayed members participation in OND, promoting sense of identity and pride. Implicitly, conveyed loyalty to fascist regime, OND was instrument for fostering community spirit and political indoctrination - when: founded in 1925, operated until fall of regime in 1945
- where:
- why: aimed to foster loyalty to fascist regimes by improving quality of life for workers and intergrating them into fascist social framework
Hydroplanes; Italo Balbo
- who: Italo Balbo (1896-1940) was an Italian Blackshirt leader who served as Italy’s Marshal of the Air Force. Governor-General of Libya, Commander-in-chief of Italian North Africa, and the heir apparent to Mussolini
o 1926: he began the task of building the Italian Royal Air Force and took a leading role in popularizing aviation in Italy, and promoting Italian aviation to the world
o He was the only leading Fascist to oppose both anti-Jewish racial laws and Mussolini’s alliance with Nazi Germany
o Become famous for organizing a squadron of S.55s for Atlantic crossings in 1933 with 24 aircrafts to Chicago’s Century of Progress International Exposition - what: General Balbo commanded a flight of S-55s from Orbetello,
o Italy completing the flight in just over 48 hours, maintains a tight “V” formation
o Large fleets of aircraft were sometimes called a “Balbo”
o The S-55 was a double-hulled flying boat produced in Italy in the beginning 0f 1924
o It began setting record for speed, payload, altitude and range - when: crossed Mediterranean in 1928, and north atlantic flight (balbo crossing) in 1933
- why: he remains a symbol of Italian aviation history and fascist propaganda
Ministry of Popular Culture (MinCulPop)
- who: A ministry of the Italian government, Intended to be the Italian analogue of the German Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda
- what: Controlled most of the literary and radio channels in Italy
Famously outlawed the importation and translation of all American comic book, except Mickey Mouse (1938) - when: 1937- 1944
- why: wished to influence public opinion, by censorship, propaganda, and cultural regulation
Cinecittà
- what: large film studio in rome, often referred to as the hub of Italian cinema
o produced entertainment and propaganda films - when: opened on april 28, 1937
- where: rome
- why: to centralize and boost Italian film industry, making it a tool for propaganda and cultural influence
Istituto L.U.C.E.
- what: l’unione cinematografica educativa was educational film institute focused on producing newsreels and documentaries
o produced newsreels and documentaries highlighting regimes success - when: founded in 124
- why: to use visual media as tool for education and propaganda
Levi’s Christ: what kind of «indifference»? by whom?
- who: carlo levi, Italian write and painter
- what: chirs stopped at eboli is a memoir by carlo levi that describes him time in political exile in southern Italy
o indifference: describes gov. indifference to hardships facesd by southern peasants, contrasting with developed north
o impact: book shed light on socio-economic divide in Italy and became significant critique to fascism - when: published in 145
- where: Lucania, italy
- why: levi’s memoir highlights neglect and indifference of Italian gov. towards impoverished rural south
Levi’s Christ: the two Italies
- contrast: levi contrasts prosperous industrialized north with impoverished, agragarian south
- neglect: book emphasizes neglect of south by central gov. causing regional disparities
- cultural diffs: levi highlight cultural and social differences between two regions
- What: in the book, Levi tells how Northerners viewed the southerners with”inherent racial inferiority”
o Levi writes “Yes, New York, rather than Rome or Naples would be the real capital of the peasant of Lucania, if these men without a country could have a capital at all”
o Insinuating that the peasants and people of Lucania have no country which cares
Levi’s Christ: the brigands’ war
- historical context: brigand’s war refers to period of armed resistance by southern peasants and former soldiers against newly unified Italian state’s harsh policies
- symbolism: levi uses brigands’ war as symbol of south’s enduring resistance to oppression and neglect by central gov.
- legacy: brigands’ war represents historical roots of south’s socio-economic struggles and complex relationship with italy
- Brigand: a person who usually lives in a gang and lives by pillage and robbery
- Brigandage: the practice of brigands: highway robbery and plunder
The Austrian crisis from 1934 to 1938
- who: Mussolini, engelbert dollfuss (Austrian chancellor), and Hitler
- what: period fo political tension and diplomatic maneuvering
- when: 1934-1938
o 1934: Austrian chancellor dollfuss was assassinated during attempted coup by Austrian Nazis. Mussolini itally supported Austrian independence to prevent german influence
o 1938: Austria was annexed by nazi Germany, with little resistance from italy - where: austria
- why: crisis revolved around austria’s independence and potential annexation by Nazis
The Stresa conference
- what: diplomatic meeting between Italy, france, and britan
o outcome: despite united front presented at stresa, agreements were undermined by subsequent events, such as italy’s invasion of Ethiopia and signing of anglo-german naval agreement
o formed the “Stresa Front” against German aggression which was never implemented
o Mussolini actually went on to later join German alliance in 1936 (Rome-Berlin Axis)
o Britain also negotiated a naval agreement with Germany - when: april 1935
- where: stresa, italy
- why: to reaffirm Locarno treaties and address threat of german rearmament
o conference aimed to maintain independence of Austria and uphold borders established by treaty of versailles
o German violations of rearmament of the Treaty of Versailles (Versailles Peace Settlement)
The Ethiopian war
- what: italy’s invasion and occupation of Ethiopia
o invasion: Italy declared victory and established colony of Italian east Africa, merging Ethiopia with eritreae and Italian Somaliland - condemned by league of nations, leading to economic sanctions against Italy (ineffective)
- when: October 1935 to may 1936
- where: ethiopia
- why: Mussolini sought to expand italy’s colonial empire to assert power
consequences of ethiopian war
consequences of the war
- italy’s control over thiopia was short-lived, as british Ethiopian forced expelled Italians during WWII
- league of nations imposed economic sanctions on Italy
- war initially boosted mussolini’s regime
- conflict strained italy’s relations with britain and france
The 1935-36 sanctions
- who: league of nations targeting mussolini’s regime
- what: economic sanctions imposed by league fo nations on Italy
o sanctions included arms embargoes and prohibitions on financial loans, imports and exports
o sanctions were partially effective as countries like US and Germany did not fully participate
o sanctions did not stop military actions in ethiopia - when: 1935, lifted in 1936
- where: international, affecting trade with italy
- why: imposed as response to italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935
Galeazzo Ciano: marriage, rise, deeds, death … and diaries
- who: count of cortellazzo and buccari- an influential Italian diplomat and politician
o married mussolini’s daughter Edda (1930)
o became itialys foreign minister in 1936 - what: known for his marriage into mussolini’s family, political rise, contributions to fascism, infamous diaries
o involved in key diplomatic negotiations, including pact of steels
o allegedly involved in planning murder of Carlos rosella and nello rosella
o Executed on the orders of Mussolini under pressure of Nazi Germany - when: 1903-1944
- why: recorded valuable insights into its inner working
Gramsci and the Rosselli brothers, victims of Fascism in the 1930s
- who: prominent intellectual and anti-fascist activists who were persecuted by fascist regime
o Gramsci: Marxist philosopher and cofounder of Italian communist party - Develops the notion of Hegemony - obtaining power by creating consensus
among some social groups - Imprisoned by fascist government
o Rosselli brothers: founders of anti-fascist movement ‘giustizia e liberta’ - what: individuals who opposed fascism and often faces persecution or assassination
- when: all assassinated in 1937
- why:opposition to fascism led to their death
other victims of fascism
Who: Don Minzoni
What: Father Minzoni was murdered by two fascist “squadristi”, who smashed his skull with a club; they were reportedly following orders of the local “Console di Milizia” Italo Balbo
When: 10:30 pm on August 23, 1923
Where: Argenta, Italy
Why: anti-fascist priest
rejected the introduction of the fascist youth movement, the Opera Nazionale Balilla in Argenta, because he preferred to educate the young people of the town in the values of Catholicism.
He therefore decided to found a scout group in his own parish.
Who: Piero Gobetti
Italian journalist, intellectual and radical liberal and anti-fascist
What: assaulted by fascist thugs
Where: Italy (does not say where) - Paris
When:He was beaten up in 1925 and escaped to Paris early the next year. He died there in February, 1926.
Why: He was an exceptionally active campaigner and critic in the crisis years in Italy after the First World War and into the early years of Fascist rule
other communities victims of fascism
Slavs- Benito Mussolini viewed the Slavic race as inferior and barbaric. He identified the Yugoslavs (Croats) as a threat to Italy and he viewed them as competitors over the region of Dalmatia, which was claimed by Italy, and he claimed that the threat rallied Italians together at the end of World War I
Jews- The Manifesto of Race published on 14 July 1938, prepared for the enactment of racial laws to be introduced. The Italian Racial Laws were passed on 18 November 1938, excluding Jews from the civil service, the armed forces, and the National Fascist Party, and restricting Jewish ownership of certain companies and property; intermarriage was also prohibited.
Non-white races- “Fascism was born… out of a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan race”. Mussolini was concerned with the low birth rates of the white race in contrast to the African and Asian races
The Italian armed forces in the late 1930s
- who: royal army, royal navy, royal air force, and MVSN or blackshirts
- what: state and activities of Italian military during late 1930s
o involved in Spanish civil war (highlighted deficiencies in equipment and strategy), ethiopian war (appeared successful but strained italy’s resources), and Albania (annexed Albania with little resistance)
o WWII: struggled with supply issues, inadequate support, and poor coordination, leadings to german intervention - when: late 1930s
- where:
- why: were not well equipped, inadequately trained, contributing to the collapse of mussolini’s regime
autarky (autarchia)
- who: implemented by mussolini
- what: economic policy aiming for national self-sufficiency
o policy encouraged domestic production of goods, imposed tariffs on imports, and promoted development of local industries
o included initiative like the battle for gran to increase agricultural self-sufficiency and other campaigns to boos domestic manufacturing
o some successes, but Italy remained dependent on certain key imports - when: promoted especially during 1930s
- where:
- why: to reduce reliance on foreign imports, strengthen national economy, prepare for potential wartime conditions
The “Rome-Berlin axis”
- who: Mussolini and hitler
o agreement formulated by galeazzo ciano, formalized by berlin agreement - what: coalition and diplomatic alignment between fascist Italy and nazi germany
- when: formalized by pact of steel in 1939
- where: rome Italy, berlin germany
- why: symbolizes alliance between Italy and Germany, reflecting mutual interest and cooperative efforts in expanding their influence in Europe
o laid out groundwork for military and political collaboration during WWII
The Spanish civil war (in its relation to Italy)
- who: nationalist forced led by franco, supported by Italy and Germany; republican forces supported by soviet union and international brigades
- what: civil war between republicans and nationalists in spain
o nationlists won the war, leading to fascist dictatorship under franco
o Italian participation in war drained resources and highlighted limitations of italy’s military capabilities - when: july 17, 1936- april 1, 1939
- where: spain
- why: Italy supported franco’s nationalists to counteract communism, extend fascist influence, and test military strategies and equipment
o Mussolini provided troops and resources, serving to strengthen rome-berlin axis
Hitler’s visit in Rome and … A Xxxxxxx Day
- who: adolf hitler
- what: hitler’s state visit to Italy to strengthen alliance between two countries
o hitlers visit included grand military aprades, cultural events, and meetings with Mussolini and king victor E III
o visit showed strategic alignment between nazi and facists - when: may 3-9, 1938
- where: rome
- why: reinforce rome-berlin axis, demonstrating close relationship between two countries
The “Czech crisis” and the Munich conference
29 The “Czech crisis” and the Munich conference
- who: adolf hitler (Germany), Neville chamberlain (Britain), edouard Daladier (france), benito Mussolini (Italy)
- what: crisis over the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, leading to munich conference
o outcome: munich agreement allowed Germany to anenx Sudetenland without military intervention from Britain and france
o impact: agreement often cited as failure fo appeasement, as it emboldened hitler to pursue further expansion (leading to WWII)
- when: munich-sep 29, 1938, Sudetenland handed over to Germany on oct 10th, 1938
- where: munich, germany
- why: hitler demanded annexation fo Sudetenland, region with german-speaking pop. (conference aimed to avoid war)
o Czechoslovakia did not want to allow this because of wealth of resources in area and if they left many other ethnic groups within its borders may want to do the same
The “racial” (i.e., racist) laws (anti-semitism)
- who: benito mussolini
- what: series of laws discriminating against jews and other minorities
o laws banned jews from holding public office, attending state schools, marrying non-jews, etc
o laws led to discrimination, social exclusion, and persecution of jews - marked significant shift in Italian policy contributing to the holocause
- when: enacted in 1938
- where: italy
- why: to align Italy with nazi germany’s racial policies, solidifying rome-berlin axis
The invasion of Albania
- who: Italian armed forced
- what: italy’s military invasion and occupation of Albania
o invasion was swift and met with minimal resistance - king zog I of Albania fled, Italy established puppet government
o invasion strained italy’s relation with other European powers - when: april 7-12, 1939
- where: albania
- why: Mussolini wanted to expand italy’s influence in Balkans, asserting power in the region
The Pact of Steel
- who: benito Mussolini and hitler
- what: military and policital alliance between Italy and Germany
o pact committed both countries to mutual support in event of war and coordination of military and economic policies
o strengthened axis powers’ cooperation, set stage for join actions in WWII - when: signed on may 22, 1939
o Sept 1940: Japan joins, becomes the Tripartite Pact - where: berlin, germany
- why: solidify rome-berlin axis, prepare for potential military conflicts
1st Sept. ’39 - 10 June ’40: what was Italy doing?
- what: during initial phae of WWII, Italy remained neutral (non-belligerence)
o preparation: Italy was rearming and preparing its military forces for potential engagement
o diplomacy: Mussolini was negotiating with hitler and evaluating strategic advantages of joining the war - when: WWI started on 1st september 1939, and Italy joined on june 10th 1940, declaring war on france and britain
Italy’s “parallel war” and 2nd World War in general till July 1943
- who: axis vs allies, mussolini’s ousting in july 1943
- what: Italy’s strategy and military campaigns during WWII until jul 1943
o parallel war: Italy pursued strategy of fighting on multiple front, including north Africa, Mediterranean, Balkans, while expecting german support
o military campaigns: Italy invaded Greece, participated in battle of Britain, and engaged in north African campaign
o 2nd WW: allies (UK, US, soviet union and china) vs the axis powers (nazi Germany, fascist italy, empire of japan), - when: sep 1 1939- july 1943
- where: including north Africa, Mediterranean and the balkans
- why: Italy aimed to expand empire and secure its interests while aligning with nazi germany
July 1943: 9th (hint: Sicily), 19th (hint: Rome), 25th (hint: Rome)
- who: allied forces, Italian gov.
- what:
o 9th july 1943: allied invasion fo sicily, marking beginning fo end for Italian fascism
o 19th july 1943: rome was bombed by allied forced, causing significant destruction and lowering public morale
o 25th july 1943: Mussolini was deposed by grand council of fascism and arrested; Badoglio became new prime minister - why: these events marked collapse of fascism and beginning of allied advance into mainland italy
Marshall Badoglio in 1943
- who:
- what: took over as prime minister after mussolini’s ousting
- when:
o 8 Sept 1943: armistice document published by Allies (Badoglio Proclamation). Badoglio didn’t announce the news of the switch to armed forces therefore, they were unprepared for German actions to disarm them.
o 9 Sept 1943: Badoglio, King Victor Emmanuel, military ministers, and the Chief of the General staff escaped to Pescara and Brindisi seeking allied protection.
o 13 Oct: Badoglio + Kingdom of Italy → declared war on Nazi Germany.
o 9 Jun, 1944: Badoglio replaced by Ivanoe Bonomi of the Labour Democratic Party. - why: appotined to negotiate italy’s surrender to the allies and manage transition from fascist rule
The “45 days”, a.k.a « The war continues »
- who: Italian government under Badoglio, allied forces, german forces
- what: on july 25th Mussolini was deposed by palace coup and investigated by dissident fascists
o following 45 day period was one fo political changes where Badoglio declared that rome-berlin axis was declared intact and declared war to continue - secretly, Badoglio took cautious steps to arrange armistics with allied forces
- when: july 25 to sep 8, 1943
- where: rome
- why: example of italy’s shifty politics during war, attempting to change sides to whoever is winning
o Badoglio made sure that very few knew about negotiation with allies
Sept. 8th (1943)
- who: walter bedell smith, Giuseppe castellano
- what: armistics of cassible, signed between generals fo the kingdom of italy and allied forces
- when: sep 8th 1943
- where:allied military camp in cassible, sicily
- why: led to german occupation of northern and central Italy, establishment of Italian social republic by Mussolini in the north
o it was negotiation to end war effort in Italy. Stipulated Italy surrender to allied forces
CLN / CLNAI: the Resistenza (what different political components /
parties?)
- who: national liberation committee (CLN)
- what: multi party organization united against fascism, including community party, Italian socialist party, action party, Christian democracy party, labor democratic party, and italian liberal party
- when: founded in sep 9 1943, lead Italy form Italian liberation of rome until first election in 1944
- where: all over Italy, mainly rome, but also underground division in occupied german-italy
- why: unique joint effort by all Italian parties to fight against previous fascist regime and maintain Italy out of the war
RSI and Salò
- who: mussolini
- what: Italian socialist republic → reformed version of fascist party under mussolini
- when: sep 1943- 1945
- where: declared its center as rome, but it was centered in salo (small town in region of lake garda)
- why: reformation of fascist party into a more linear direction was in attempt to strengthen its brand and build forward into future of Italy
o fell apart after allies took over Italy (Mussolini was caught flying with mistress)
The Congress of Verona
- who: Italian social republic (RSI) government and fascist loyalists
- what: significant congress held by RSI, known as republic of salo
o many of the decisions put forward by congress were never implemented due to ongoing war - when: nov 14-15, 1943
- where: Verona, italy
- why: congress aimed to re-establish principles of fascism following fall of Mussolini and italy’s armistic with allies
o key decisions included approval of Verona manifesto, outlining RSI’s policies and redefining fascist ideology
The Salerno “U-turn,” “turn,” or “turning point” (La svolta di Salerno)
- who: badoglio, monarchy, and anti-fascist parties
- what: meeting between united parties of Italy to institute reform over italy
- when: april 1944
- where: salerno, italy
- why: americans had set up the allied control commission to control Italy during this period
o aimed at finding compromise between Badoglio, monarchy, and anti-fascist parties
Resistenza: “Three wars in one” (Who was fighting for what? Scarves?)
- who: Italians of any age, gender, political association, or class
- what:
o partisans vs fascists and Nazis: italian resistance fighters (partisans) battling against german occupiers and Italian fascist loyalists
o civil war: internal conflict between diff partisan groups with varying ideologies, such as communists, socialist and liberals
o class war: social and economic struggles where partisans sought to address broader issues of inequality and exploitation
o scarves of diff colors symbolized various factions within resistance (red of communists, green for monarchists) - when: latter half of WWII, beginning in sep 1943
- where: northern italy
- why: Italians were fed up with how current gov. was handling situation and decided to fight back → to liberate Italy from fascist and nazi control, establish a democratic gov. and address social injustices
o when Italian gov. signed a surrender treaty with germans it was the last straw
Roberto Rossellini: Rome Open City
- who: Italian film director and screenwriter
- what: rope open city is a landmark Italian neorealist film
- when: released in 145
- where: filmed in rome
- why: film portrays struggles of Italian resistance during nazi occupation of rome
o significant for its realistic depiction of war-torn Italy, use of non-professional actors, and on-location shooting, influencing neorealist movements and international cinema
Gen. Alexander, the Partisans, 13 November 1944
- who: general in WWII
- what: in charge of british soldiers responsible for liberating rome in 1944
o urged Italian partisans to cease large scale operations and adopt defensive stance during winter - when: nov 13 1944, however general was active in first and second WW
- where: northern Africa then italy
- why: took numerous attempts to break through german lines and begin advancement through Italy
o on 4th attempt they succeeded, and alexander successfully advance to rome
o to prevents unnecessary losses among partisans during harsh winter conditions
Roberto Rossellini: Paisan
- who: Italian film director
- what: film called paisan captured over six distinct segments, which was narrative between liberated Italian and new American occupiers
- when: released in 1946
- where: sicily, po valley, etc
- why: film aimed to portray diverse experiences and challenges faced by Italians and americans during liberation of Italy
o emphasized themes of humanity, cultural exchange, realities of war
o captured emotions between individuals and their relationships, as well as fear and anxiety surrounding whether or not german would win
April 25th, 1945
- who: Italian partisans, allied forces and Italian civilians
- what: liberation day, marking end of nazi occupation and fascist rule in italy
- where: throughout Italy, events in Milan and turin
- why: successful uprising of partisans against nazi and fascist forces, leading to liberation of key cities and eventual end of WWII in italy
April 29th, 1945 (Piazza Loreto) (“From Piazza S. Sepolcro to Piazza
Loreto”)
- who: Italian partisans, Mussolini, and other leaders
- what: execution and public display of Mussolini and others
o saying of From Piazza S. Sepolcro (his speech in 1919) to Piazza Loreto (his demise) - when: april 29 1945
- where: piazza loreto, Milan, italy
- why: after Mussolini and companions were captured, they were executed and bodies were displayed in piazza loreto as a symbol of end of fascist rule and reminder of regime’s downfall
June 2nd 1946: a major political event
- who: Italian citizens and Italian gov.
o north and central Italy voted for republic
o south wanted to keep king (monarchy) - what: institutional referendum to decide between monarchy and a republic
- where: nationwide in italy
- why: Italians voted to abolish monarch and establish a republic, leading to exile of royal family and creation of Italian republic
o marked significant shift in italy’s political system
June 22nd 1946: a major political event
- who: newly established Italian constituent assembly
- what: inauguration of constituent assembly tasked with drafting new Italian constitution
- where: rome, italy
- why: constituent assembly’s work laid foundation for italy’s post-war democratic gov. ensuring fundamental rights and freedoms
o new constitution came into effect on jan 1 1948
1945-46: another “mutilated victory” (in this case, for the antifascists)?
Argue Y/N.
- who: anti-fascists, Italian government, allied forces
- what: debate over whether outcome of WWII and subsequent political developments represented a mutilated victory for anti-fascists, drawing parallels to sentiment after WWI
- when: 1945-46
- where: italy
- why: despite defeat of fascism and nazi, many anti-fascists felt that their goals for profound social and political change were only partially achieved
o continuation of monarchy, slow pace of reforms, and presence of former fascists in positions of power contributed to this perception
The First Italian Republic: 1946-1993
- who: Italian citizens, various political parties
o Christian democracy political party won election in 1946-1994 - what: period in Italian history following abolition of monarchy and establishment of a republic form of government
- when: 1946- 1993
o 1957: Italy was founding member of European union
o 1950s-60s: 5% increase in GDP each year - where:
- why: characterized by significant political changes, economic growth, and social transformation
o ended with corruption scandals , ending with reformation fo political system
Neo-fascism in Italy (incl. years and political context)
- who: neo-fascist groups (Italian Social Movement MSI), various right-wing leaders
o aligned themselves with Christian democrats in parliament - what: resurgence of fascist ideologies and movements in post-war Italy
o goals of aprty: fight communism, attack Italian democracy, secretly reviving fascism) - when: 1946 to present, with acitivty in 50s and 80s
- where: italy
- why: neo-fascism emerged as reaction to perceived failures of Italian republic, wanting to revive elements of mussolini’s fascism
o involved violent tactics, nostalgia for past regime, opposition to left-wing politics
The “strategy of tension”
- who: right-wing extremist groups, secret services, elements within Italian state
- what: strategy involving use of of terrorism and violence to create instability and justify authoritarian measures
- when: late 1960s to early 1980s
- where: italy
- why: aims was to undermine democratic system, discredit left-wing movements, promote more authoritarian state
o numerous bombings, assassinations, and other violent acts attributed to far right and far-left groups
Neo-fascist bombings from 1969 (Piazza Fontana) to 1980 (Bologna)
- who: neo-fascist terrorists, various extremist groups
- what: series of bombings attributed ot neo-facist groups aimed at creating chaos and promoting authoritarian agenda
- when: 1969-1980
- where:
- why: destabilize Italian political system, instill fear in population
1969 bombing (Milan)
1969, 12 Dec.: Milan, Piazza Fontana - Banca dell’Agricoltura
- by members of ordine nuovo: wanted to prevent left wing control of Italy (tried to frame bombing on communist insurgency groups)
1973 bombing (milan)
1973, 17 May: Milan, Police headquarters
- by Gianfranco bertoli, an anarchist activist
- hand grenade attack at commemorative ceremony with Italian minister
1974 bombing, bologa + florence
1974, 4 Aug: between Bologna and Florence, Train «Italicus»
- ordine nero, Italian far right fascist military group
- terrorist bomb attack on train
- response to killing of Giancarlo espoti
1974 bombing, brescia
1974, 28 May: Brescia, Piazza della Loggia
- member of ordine nuovo: carlo maria maggi
- terrorist bomb attack
- anti-fascist protest in brescia Italy
1980 bombing (bologna)
1980, 2nd Aug: Bologna, Train station)
- luigi ciavardini, Valerio fioravanti, and Francesca mambro (members of nuclei armati rivoluzionari
- central train station of bologna
Silvio Berlusconi (and Bettino Craxi); his 3 TV channels; Fininvest;
Forza Italia
- who: former leader of forza italia political party, former prime minster, media tycoon
o his connection with business and ownership of media channels were conflict of interest for person in power - what: authoritarian leader, political strongman, describes as populist (seeks to disrupt existing social order by solidifying animosity of the people against privileged elites)
o owned 3 tv channels (canale 5, italia 1, rete 4) through his company finivest, founded political party forza italia - when:
- where:
- why: berlusconi’s media empire allowed him to shape public opinion and gain power
o craxi supported him, and alliance influenced Italian politics
The Second Italian Republic: 1993 to date
- who: political parties dissolved and new parties emerged
o Christian democratic party dissolved, Italian people’s party, forza italia emerged
o Berlusconi became prime minister during this time - what: change in Italian political system
- when: 1993-present
- where:
- why: second republic introduced new political dynamics, with rise of parties and leaders, Italy demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms
The 1994 elections: Berlusconi’s speech + his conflict of interest
(conflitto di interessi)
- who: Silvio berlusconi
- what: berlusconi’s first electoral campaign and victory, marked by his use of media influence and conflicts of interest due to his business holdings
o became prime minister, forced to step down in December 1994 when lega nord withdrew support - when: 1994
- why: his control of major media outlets raised concerns about his ability to fairly govern without bias towards his business interests
AN (National Alliance), Gianfranco Fini, the Fiuggi congress (Jan.
1995)
- who: led by Gianfranco fini
- what: transformation of neo-fascist MSI into more moderate, conservative national alliance
o fiuggi congress marked turning point when MSI moved away from fascist ideology to more traditional conservative agenda and merged with Christian democrats to form an - when: 1995-2009
- where: fiuggi, italy
- why: merged with forza italia into people of freedom
Post-fascism in Italy (incl. years and political context)
- In 1946 a group of Fascist soldiers founded the Italian Social Movement to continue the idea of Benito Mussolini. Neo-fascist groups took part in various false flag terrorist attacks, starting with the December 1969 Piazza Fontana massacre and usually considered to have stopped with the 1980 Bologna railway bombing. Since the 1990s, National Alliance, has distanced itself from Mussolini and fascism and made efforts to improve relations with Jewish groups; it now seeks to present itself as a respectable right-wing party
Revisionism (meaning of the word in this context?)
- what: reinterpretation of reevaluation of risorgimiento, Italian unification, as well as events, often with the aim of challenging established narratives
- when: post WWII- present
- where: revisionism often refers to attempts to assess the fascist era and its aftermath, sometimes minimizing negative aspects of questioning established view of the resistance
“Release from customs” (s-dogana-mento)
- who: Italian socialist movement, right wing political parties
- what: metaphorical term referring to process of overcoming historical taboos or restrictions, often related to discussing or reassessing fascist past
- when: 1973 - present
- where:
- why: extreme right wing groups become more visible and influential Italian politics again, disassociating form ties to fascism
o to encourage open discussion and reflection on italy’s history and identity, allowing for more nuanced understanding of past
Lega Nord (Northern League): first Bossi, then Maroni, now (2017
>) Salvini
- who:
o umberto bossi: party’s secretary (he appropriated funds so his resignation was in action)
o Roberto maroni: successor of umberto bossi - Elected juli 1st 2012, but in sep 2013, maroni announced he would leave leadership → now president of lombardy
o matteo salvini: salvini became leader in dec 2014 - what: regionalist political party advocating for greater autonomy for northern Italy
o rejected immigration, part of extreme right - when: founded in 1991
- where:
- why: address perceived economic disparities between northern and souther Italy (in order to become a federal state)and promote regional interests
Alessandra Mussolini (vs. Mara Carfagna, known to Italians from
calendars)
- who:
o alessandra: politicaian and granddaughter of benito Mussolini
o cargafgna: former model and politican - what: both involved in Italian politics, with Mussolini known for her far-right views and cargagna for her role in berlusconi’s forza italia party
- where: naples
The G8 Summit in Genoa / Genova (July 2001); “black blocs”
- who: Leaders of Canada (Jean Cretien), France (Jacques Chirac), Germany (Gerhard Schroder), Italy (Silvio Berlusconi), Japan (Junichiro Koizumi), Russia (Vladimir Putin), United Kingdom (Tony Blair), United States (George W. Bush), and the European Union (Roman Prodi and Guy Verhofstadt)
- what: 27th G8 summit
- when: july 21-22, 2001
- where: Geneva, italy
- why: address differences among members and discuss how to reduce poverty
o overshadowed by riots in city (thought that some secrecy was involved because terrorists showed up)
Umberto Eco on historical Fascism: “organized confusion” and its
various examples
- who: Italian novelist and philosopher
- what: ecos’s concept of organized confusion on fascism: fuzzy form of totalitarianism, not monolithic ideology, but a collage of diverse political and philosophical ideas, tangle of contradictions
- when: essay published in 1995
- where:
- why: he argued that fascism’s appeal lay in its ability to adapt and incorporate contradictory elements, creating organized confusion that resonated with most
o ex. Use of traditional values alongside modern technology and mix of populist and elitist rhetoric
Umberto Eco on historical Fascism: The 14 characteristics of
“eternal fascism”
- who:
- what: eco identified 14 characteristics of what eh termed eternal fascism or ur fascism
- when: published in 1995
- where:
- why: intended to provide framework for identifying fascist tendencies in any society (help recognize underlying patterns of fascist ideologies, even if they appear in different forms)
o e.g., cult of tradition, rejection of modernism, irrationalism, action for action’s sake, disagreement as treason, fear of difference, and more
