FINAL Flashcards
Psychodynamic Persepctive
how behavior springs from unconscious drives, dreams and experiences
Behaviorism
how we learn observable techniques
Humanistic
how each individual has freedom of choice
Cognitive
how our thought process works and how we store and remember information
Biological
how the body and brain enable emotions and sensory experiences
Evolutionary
how the natural selection of traits promotes the making of ones genes
Sociocultural
how thinking and behavior vary across cultures and situations
Biopsychosocial
combines biological, psychosocial, and sociocultural
Confirmation Bias
the tendency to only research ideas that back up someones beliefs
Hindsight Bias
“I knew it all along”
Overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do
The Scientific Method
steps to solving a problem
Hypothesis
testable prediction about a relationship between 2 variables that can help us test out theory
Falsifiable
able to prove false
Peer Review
evaluation by others
Replication
being able to replicate the same results more than once
Reliability
validity/trustworthiness
Validity
correct-ness
APA
American Psychological Association, promotes the knowledge of psychology to enhance the health and welfare of the population
Research Design
planning out your research
Methodology
strategy/rationale of your research
Quantitative Data
numerical
Qualitative Data
non-numerical
Structured Interviews
employment test tool where ever part of the process is kept consistant
Survey Technique
ask questions to determine public opinion on topics
Wording Effect
words can be misinterpreted to get different results
Social Desirability Bias
gives answers based on what other people want, concealing what that person really thinks
Naturalistic Observation
a subject is observed in their natural habitat
Case Study
up-close and in-depth examination of a subject in hopes of generalizing the findings
Correlational Research
examines relationships and/or predictions between 2 variables
Third Variable Problem
could be affecting 2 factors in a correlational study
Correlation Coefficient
numerical measurement of the correlation relationship
No Correlation
no directions in variables (all over the place)
Positive Correlation
variables heading in the same direction (starts at 0)
Negative Correlation
variables heading in opposite directions (doesn’t start at 0)
Experimental Method
conducts the study to either confirm or disprove the hypothesis
Independent Variable
the variable that changes
Dependent Variable
the variable that is being measured
Confounding Variable
variable that influences both independent and dependent variables
Opperational Definition
describes behavior so that it is observable
Experimental Group
the group in an experiment that is not being tested
Random Assignment
placing participants into random groups
Placebo Effect
when placebos “work”, people think they work/feel better but they don’t
Experimental Bias
when the hypothesis gets in the way of the experiment
Single-Blind Study
participants are unaware of which group they’re in, experimenters know
Double-Blind Study
both participants and experimenters are unaware of which group they’re in
Placebo Condition
placebo doesn’t work
Sample
a small test for a bigger experiment
Representative Sample
a sample from a large group that accurately represents the characteristics of a large population
Random Sample
randomly selects a group of participants
Sample Bias
all sample data is wrong individually but correct on average
Generalizability
measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations
Statistics
collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data
Descriptive Statistics
involves summarizing, organizing, and presenting data
Inferential Statistics
estimation and hypothesis testing
Mean
average of scores (add all #s then divide by # of #s)
Median
middle score, put #s order of highest to lowest, find middle #
Mode
most frequently occurring score
Range
difference between the highest and lowest scores
Regression to the Mean
tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back towards the average
Positive Skew
the tail of the bell curve is more on the right
Negative Skew
the tail of the bell curve is more on the left
Standard Deviation
a measure of how dispersed the data is in relation to the mean
Percentile Rank
% of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than that
Statistical Significance
claim that a result from data generalized by testing is likely to be associated to a specific cause
Effect Sizes
tells you how meaningful the relationship between variables are
Meta Analysis
gathering information from former studies to create a bigger study
IRBs
Institutional Review Boards, protects the rights of human research subjects
Informed Consent
the human subject gives the OK for them to be used for research
Informed Assent
process through which researchers agree to participate in clinical studies
Confidentiality
keeping or being kept secret or private
Deception
causing someone to accept something as true although it is false
Confederates
research actors
Debriefing
analyzing what went down with someone
Memory
things we remember
Encoding
processing of information into the memory system
Storage
retention of encoded material overtime
Retrieval
process of getting information out of memory storage
Sensory Memory
immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic Memory
momentary visual memory; lasts no more than .3 seconds
Echoic Memory
momentary auditory memory; can have a 3-4 second delay
Short Term Memory
(working memory), activated memory that holds a few items before the information is stored or forgotten
Long Term Memory
relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of the memory system
Long Term Potentiation
an increase in a synapse’s firing potential connections
Effortful Processing
encoding information through conscious attention and effort
Automatic Processing
does not use any effort or deliberation
Levels of Processing Model
shallow, intermediate, deep processing
Structrural/Phonemic
S: processing only the visual aspects of an item
P: adds sound to the encoding process
Chunking
brain divides details into units/groups
Mnemonics
ways of improving or remembering information better
Explicit Memory
(declarative), memories of facts and experiments that one can consciously know and “declare”
Semantic Memory
facts and general knowledge
Episodic Memory
personally experienced events
Implicit Memory
retention without conscious recollection
Procedural Memory
retrieving information necessary to perform skills
Prospective Memory
remembering to do something in the future
Spacing Effect
how learning is more effective when study sessions are spread out over time
Retrieval Cues
things that help us retrieve memories
Recall
retrieving memories from the past without relying on specific cues
Recognition
identifying a person, place, or object, as familiar
Context-Dependent Memory
when remembering is stronger when you are present in the same environment when the original memory was formed
State-Dependent Memory
when we remember something better based on the emotions/mental state you are in when the original memory is formed
Mood-Congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s mood
Serial Position Effect
our tendency to recall best the 1st and last items in a list
Primacy Effect
remembering 1st information
Recency Effect
recall information that was more recently presented rather than information presented in the beginning
Testing Effect
memory enhancement as a result of taking a memory test
The Forgetting Curve
Herman Ebbinghaus, learning curve that shows how quickly people forget information overtime
Encoding Failure
when information is not effectively stored in the memory
Proactive Interference
the forward-acting disruptive effort of older learning on the recall of old information
Retroactive Interference
the backward acting disruptive of never learning on the recall of old information
Source Amnesia
the heart of many faulty memories, for how, when, or, where the information was learned
Anterograde Amnesia
an inhability to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
Infantile Amnesia
inability to recall early memories
Repression
unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts, feelings, or memories
Constructive Memory
how the brain creates memories, which can be influenced by new information
Misinformation Effect
when someone’s memory of an event is distorted by misleading information
Perception
organizing and interpreting sensory information
Bottom-Up Processing
starts with analysis of sensory information, and works its way up to the brain’s integration
Top-Down Processing
guided by high level processes, constructing perceptions based off of our experiences and expectations
Selective Attention
focusing of intentional awareness on a particualr stimuli
Cocktail Party Effect
being able to follow one person talking rather than multiple people
Inattentional Blindness
failing to notice visible objects when we are distracted by something else
Change Blindness
failing to notice changes in the enviorment
Schemas
graphing information that makes it easy to organize information
Perceptual Set
Perceiving things in a certain way
Gestalt Psychology
believes that all subjects and scenes can be observed in the simplest forms
Figure-Ground
ability to differentiate an object from it background
Binocular Depth Cues
image taken by your eyes to give depth perception
Retinal Disparity
the difference between what you see in either eye
Convergence
how our brain interprets sensory information to understand our surroundings
Monocular Depth Cues
depth cues without having to use both eyes
Relative Clarity
we see more fuzzy/less defined objects as further away than sharp objects
Relative Size
when things are similar in size, we perceive the smaller one to be further away
Texture Gradient
as the surface gets further away, texture gets finer and appears more smooth
Linear Perspective
the more lines converge the greater the distance is that we percieve
Interposition
objects that block other objects tend to be perceived as closer
Perceptual Constancies
when we see objects as having standard shapes, colors, sizes, etc
Shape Consistency
when we see a shape we associate it with something familiar
Size Consistency
when we are familiar with an object so it has a consistent size
Color Consistency
our ability to associate a color to an object no matter the environment
Apparent Movement
when 2 shapes may be seen as a moving object if they are shown one after the other quickly8
Executive Functions
mental skills that help with planning, focusing, remembering and managing tasks
Divergent Thinking
coming up with multiple ideas or solutions for a problem
Gambler’s Fallacy
belief that past random events affects future ones
Sunk-Cost Fallacy
continuing a decision based on past investments, not current value
Intelligence
ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adopt to new situations
g (General Intelligence)
ability to reason, solve problems, and learn
Multiple Intelligence
theory that intelligence comes in different forms
Growth Mindset
belief that abilities can improve with effort and learning
Fixed Mindset
belief that abilities are static and cant change
IQ
a score that measures a person’s intelligence
Standardization
ensuring a test is given and scored the same way for everyone
Achievement Tests
a test that measures what someone has learned
Aptitude Tests
tests that measure potential to learn or perform well in the future
Validity
how well a test measures what its supposed to measure
Construct Validity
how well a test measures the specific concept its intended to measure
Predictive Validity
how well a test predicts future performance
Reliability
consistency of a test result over time
Test-Retest Reliability
consistency of test results when taken at different times
Split-Half Reliability
consistency between 2 halves of a test
Flynn Effect
observed risen average IQ scores over time
Stereotype Threat
worry about confirming a negative stereotype, can affect performance
Stereotype Lift
performance improvement due to positive stereotypes about one’s group
Natural Selection
organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfuly
Heredity
the passing of traits from parents to kids through genes
Genetic Predisposition
increased likelihood of developing a certain trait or condition due to inherited genes
Eugenics
improved genetics through selective breeding
Cerebral Cortex
the brain’s outer layer, controls thinking, memory, and senses
Association Areas
brain regions linking sensory input to actions and thoughts.
Frontal Lobes
brain area for thinking, planning, and decision making
Prefrontal Cortex
front brain part for complex thinking and self-control
Motor Cortex
brain area controlling voluntary movements
Parietal Lobes
brain area processing touch and spatial awareness
Somatosensory Cortex
brain area for processing touch and body sensations
Occipital Lobes
brain area for vision processing
Temporal Lobes
brain area for hearing and memory
Corpus Callosum
nerve fibers connecting brain hemispheres, in between right and left
Brainstem
controls basic survival functions like breathing and heartbeat
Medulla
controls breathing, heart rate, and reflexes
Reticular Activating System
regulates alertness and sleep-wake cycles
Cerebellum
controls balance, coordination, and movement
Limbic System
brain system for emotions, memory, and motivation
Reward Center
brain area triggering pleasure and motivation
Thalamus
sensory relay center of the brain
Hypothalamus
regulates hormones, hunger, and body temperature
Pituitary Gland
master gland controlling hormones and growth
Hippocampus
brain part for memory and learning
Amygdala
brain part for processing emotions, especially fear and anger
Nervous System
body’s network for sending signals and controlling functions
Central Nervous System
CNS, brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
PNS, nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
Autonomic Nervous System
controls involuntary functions like heartbeat and digestion
Sympathetic Nervous System
activates “fight or flight” response
Parasympathetic Nervous System
calms the body; “rest and digest”
Somatic Nervous System
controls voluntary movements and sensory signals
Neurons
nerve cells transmitting signals in the body
Glial Cells
support cells for neurons, providing nutrients and protection
Motor Neurons
nerve cells sending signals to muscles for movement
Sensory Neurons
nerve cells transmitting sensory information to the brain
Interneurons
nerve cells connecting other neurons for communication
Reflex Arc
direct nerve pathway for quick, automatic responses
Neural Transmission
signal transfer between neurons via electrical and chemical mean
Threshold
the minimum stimulus needed to trigger a neural impulse
Action Potential
electrical impulse traveling down a neuron
All-or-Nothing Principal
a neuron either fires completely or not at all
Depolarization
neuron becomes less negative, triggering an action potential
Refractory Period
rest period when a neuron can’t fire again
Resting Potential
neuron’s stable, negative charge when inactive
Reuptake
reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron
Multiple Sclerosis
MS, disease damaging nerve coatings, disrupting signals
Myasthenia Gravis
autoimmune disorder weakening muscles by affecting nerve signals
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers transmitting signals between neurons
Excitatory Neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing
Glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters that reduce the likelihood of a neuron firing
GABA
inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity
Dopamine
linked to pleasure, movement, and motivation
Serotonin
regulates mood, sleep, and appetite
Endorphin
reduce pain and boosts happiness
Acetylcholine
involved in muscle movement and memory
Hormones
chemical messengers regulating body functions and processes
Ghrelin
stimulates hunger
Leptin
signals fullness and regulates energy balance
melatonin
regulates sleep-wake cycles
Oxytocin
promotes bonding, trust, and labor contractions
Adrenaline
prepares the body for “fight or flight” response
Norepinephrine
involved in stress response and alertness
Plasticity
the brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections
Broca’s Area
brain’s region responsible for speech production
Broca’s Aphasia
a condition where speech production is impaired, but comprehension remains intact
Wernicke’s Area
brain’s region involved in language comprehension
Wernicke’s Aphasia
a condition where speech is fluent but lacks meaning, and comprehension is impaired
Electroencephalogram
EEG, a test measuring electrical activity in the brain
Funcional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
fMRI, imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting blood flow
Lesioning
damaging a brain area to study its function
Sensation
the process of detecting stimuli from the environment through sensory organs
Perception
the process of interpreting and organizing sensory information
Transduction
the conversion of sensory stimuli into electrical signals the brain can understand
Absolute Threshold
the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected
Weber’s Law
the principle that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus
Sensory Adaptation
the decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time
Synesthesia
a condition where stimulation of one sense triggers an automatic experience in another
Retina
the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that detects visual information
Rods
photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect light and dark, aiding night vision
Cones
photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and detail in bright light
Fovea
the central part of the retina responsible for sharp, detailed vision
Blind Spot
the area of the retina without photoreceptors where the optic nerve exits the eye, creating a spot with no vision
Ganglion Cells
nerve cells in the retina that transmit visual information from the photoreceptors to the brain
Lens
transparent structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina
Accommodation
process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances
Nearsightedness
distant objects appear blurry because the eye focuses light in front of the retina
Farsightedness
nearby objects appear blurry because the eye focuses light behind the retina
Trichromatic Theory
theory that color vision is based on three primary colors: red, green, and blue.
Opponent-Process Theory
theory that color vision is controlled by three opposing color pairs: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white
Afterimages
visual illusions that occur after staring at a bright color and then looking away, seeing the complementary color
Dichromatism
color blindness where a person can only perceive two primary colors instead of three
Monochromatism
rare form of color blindness where a person sees only shades of gray
Blindsight
a condition where individuals can respond to visual stimuli without consciously seeing them, often due to brain damage.
Prosopagnosia
a condition where individuals cannot recognize faces, despite having normal vision
Wavelength
distance between two consecutive peaks of a wave, determining its color in light and pitch in
sound
Amplitude
height of a wave, determining its intensity or brightness in light and volume in sound
Pitch Perception
ability to perceive the frequency of sound waves, which determines the pitch of a sound
Place Theory
theory that pitch is determined by the location of maximum vibration on the cochlea’s basilar membrane
Frequency Theory
theory that pitch is determined by the frequency of vibrations in the basilar membrane of the cochlea
Volley Theory
theory that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire in succession to encode frequencies that exceed individual neuron firing limits
Sound Localization
ability to pinpoint the source of a sound based on ear differences
Conduction Deafness
hearing loss caused by damage to the outer or middle ear, affecting sound transmission
Sensorineural Deafness
hearing loss due to damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve
Sensory Interaction
when one sense influences or enhances the perception of another sense
Olfactory System
sensory system responsible for the sense of smell
Pheromones
chemicals released by organisms that affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species
Gustation
sense of taste
Supertasters
heightened sensitivity to certain tastes, especially bitter flavors.
Warm/Cold Receptors
sensory receptors in the skin that detect temperature changes
Gate Control Theory
theory that pain is controlled by a “gate” in the spinal cord that either blocks or allows pain signals to reach the brain
Vestibular Sense
sense that helps with balance by detecting the position and movement of the head
Semicircular Canals
fluid-filled structures in the inner ear that help maintain balance
Kinesthetics
sense of body position and movement, detecting muscle and joint motion
Consciousness
state of being aware of and able to think about one’s surroundings, thoughts, and emotions
Circadian Rhythm
the body’s natural 24-hour cycle of sleep and wakefulness
NREM Stage 1
lightest stage of sleep, where you drift in and out of sleep, lasting a few minutes
NREM Stage 2
deeper sleep stage where heart rate and breathing slow, brain waves show patterns of sleep spindles
NREM Stage 3
deepest sleep stage where the body repairs itself, and brain waves are very slow (delta waves).
REM Sleep
the stage in which we dream
REM Rebound
tendency to experience longer periods of REM sleep after sleep deprivation
Activation-Synthesis
theory that dreams result from the brain’s attempt to make sense of random brain activity during sleep
Consolidation Theory
theory that sleep helps stabilize and strengthen memories formed during the day
Insomnia
a sleep disorder that includes difficulty sleeping or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
a sleep disorder the includes sudden and uncontrollable episodes of deep sleep during the
day
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts when sleeping
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
a condition where people act out their dreams during REM sleep, usually violently
Somnambulism
sleepwalking, where a person moves or performs activities while asleep
Psychoactive Drugs
drugs that alter brain function, affecting mood, perception, or behavior
Agonists
drugs that mimic or enhance the effect of a neurotransmitter
Antagonists
drugs that block or reduce the effect of a neurotransmitter
Reuptake Inhibitors
drugs that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their effect
Stimulants
drugs that increase alertness, energy, and activity by boosting the activity of the central nervous system
Caffeine
stimulant that increases alertness by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain
Cocaine
powerful stimulant that increases dopamine levels, energy and euphoria, can be highly addictive and harmful.
Depressants
drugs that reduce central nervous system activity, leading to relaxation, and slowed bodily functions
Alcohol
depressant that slows brain activity, impairing judgment, coordination, and reaction times
Hallucinogens
drugs that alter perception, mood, and thought, often causing hallucinations or distorted reality
Marijuana
cannibas based drug, hallucinogen, stimulant, or depressant, affecting mood, memory, and perception
Opioids
hallucinogens that include pain relievers, highly addictive, and can cause euphoria, drowsiness, and respiratory depression
Heroin
Hallucinogen opioid drug that produces intense euphoria, can lead to dangerous physical dependence and overdose
Tolerance
reduced response to a drug after repeated use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect
Withdrawl
physical and mental symptoms that occur when a person stops using a drug they are dependent on
Addiction
compulsive dependence on a substance or behavior
