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honors bio > final > Flashcards

final Flashcards

1
Q

What are the parts of the cell cycle?

A

1) Interphase
2) Cell Division

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2
Q

What happens during interphase?

A

This is where the cells spend the most time and perform their normal function or job: Gap 1, S phase, and Gap 2

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3
Q

Gap 1

A

Cell growth

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4
Q

S phase

A

DNA replication

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5
Q

Gap 2

A

Cell growth and preparation for division

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6
Q

What happens during cell division (m phase)

A

Mitosis, cytokinesis

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7
Q

What are sister chromatids?

A

Identical copies of DNA attached together to make a chromosome
Only exist after DNA replication after S phase

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8
Q

What is a centromere

A

The middle of a replicated chromosome

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9
Q

What is a telomere

A

The ends of the chromosomes

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10
Q

Prophase

A

DNA condenses into chromosomes
Centrioles moves to the opposite “poles” of the cells and send out spindle fibers
Nuclear envelope breaks down and nucleolus disappears

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11
Q

Metaphase

A

All the chromosomes are lined up across the equator (center) of the cell
Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes
Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber originating from opposite poles

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12
Q

Anaphase

A

Sister chromatids break apart and are now called daughter chromosomes
Daughter chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by spindle fibers
Spindle fibers that aren’t attached to chromosomes elongate the cell

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13
Q

Telophase

A

Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell and begin to decondense
Nuclear envelope begins to reform and spindle fibers break down

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14
Q

What is cytokinesis

A

Cell splitting

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15
Q

What is meiosis

A

Cell division that produce daughter cells called gametes

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16
Q

What is the product of meiosis

A

4 haploid cells (half the chromosomes)
Also a possibility of swapping of genetic material between homologous pairs

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17
Q

Random alignment in meiosis

A

Chromosomes line up at the equator randomly, meaning that the chromosomes from mom and dad can be mixed up in the gametes

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18
Q

What is the genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an organism (alleles)

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19
Q

What is the phenotype

A

An observable trait (visual appearance)

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20
Q

Dominant vs recessive

A

An allele can be either dominant or recessive

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21
Q

What is a dihybrid cross

A

Two trait cross
Filled out by determining the gametes of both parents using the foil method

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22
Q

What is incomplete dominance

A

Neither allele is dominant over the other
Offspring’s appearance is a blend between the phenotypes of the 2 parents

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23
Q

What is codomiance

A

Neither allele is dominant over the other
Both alleles are expressed at the same time and a mixture is observed

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24
Q

What is multiple allelism

A

More than 2 alleles possible for a given gene

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25
Q

Blood types

A

A, B, AB, or O
Two blood types can be dominant in order to make a combination of co-dominant blood types

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26
Q

Universal Receiver

A

AB

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27
Q

Universal Donor

A

O

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28
Q

What are sex-linked genes

A

Genes that are located on the X chromosome

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29
Q

What are sex-linked traits

A

Recessive traits, meaning that both x chromosomes must have the gene in order for the trait to be expressed

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30
Q

What do pedigrees do

A

Study how a trait is passed from one generation to the next

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31
Q

What is the structure of DNA

A

Two antiparallel strands running in opposite directions held together by hydrogen bonds and nucleotides held together by covalent bonds

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32
Q

What are the nucleotides in DNA

A

5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous base

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33
Q

What is the base pairing

A

A and T= 2 hydrogen bonds
G and C= 3 hydrogen bonds

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34
Q

What is the history of DNA

A

1) Rosalind Franklin used a technique call x-ray diffraction
2) Watson and Crick built models of potential DNA structures and were able to determine it was a double helix

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35
Q

What is the purpose of DNA replication

A

New copy of DNA for every cell

36
Q

What does DNA being semiconservative mean

A

1 parent strand and 1 new strand

37
Q

Enzymes in DNA replication

A

Helicase, primase, polymerase, and ligase

38
Q

Helicase

A

Breaks hydrogen bonds between strands

39
Q

Primase

A

Makes RNA primer

40
Q

Polymerase

A

Adds nucleotides to the new strand 5’-3’

41
Q

Ligase

A

Creates covalent bonds between nucleotides to connect fragments

42
Q

What is the leading strand

A

Strand of DNA being replicated continuously

43
Q

What is the lagging strand

A

The strand of new DNA whose direction is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork

44
Q

What is transcription

A

The cell makes mRNA copies of genes that are needed

45
Q

Where does transcription occur

A

Nucleus of eukaryotes

46
Q

Key parts of transcription

A

mRNA- carriers information from a gene in DNA
RNAP- the enzymes that reads DNA to make mRNA
RNA polymerase- moves along the gene unwinding the DNA and creating a complementary strand of RNA

47
Q

What is translation

A

The mRNA is read by the ribosomes to make proteins

48
Q

Where does translation occur

A

The cytosol, cytoplasm, or rough ER

49
Q

Key parts of translation

A

mRNA- carries information from a gene in DNA
ribosome- binds mRNA and tRNA to link amino acids
tRNA- a type of RNA that matches amino acids to specific sequences of mRNA

50
Q

Reading the code

A

Every group of 3 mRNA/DNA bases encodes a single amino acid, called a codon

51
Q

What are the types of mutations

A

Insertion- adding one or more nucleotides
Deletion- removing one or more nucleotides
Substitution- changing a single nucleotide for another
Point- Affects only one nucleotide

52
Q

Effects of mutations

A

Silent mutation- the nucleotide change still encodes the same amino acid
Missense mutation- replaces the original amino acid with a different amino acid
Nonsense mutation- replaces the original amino acid with a stop codon
Frameshift- caused by the insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not divisible by 3, this disrupts the reading frame

53
Q

What is gene regulation

A

It can change the expression of a gene by turning the gene on or off, down or up

54
Q

What are activators

A

Proteins that increase gene expression

55
Q

What are repressors

A

Proteins that decrease gene expression

56
Q

Evidence of evolution

A

The Earth is old and constantly changing
Populations cannot grow unchecks
Species vary globally, locally, and over time

57
Q

Charles Darwin vs Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

A

Descent with modification
Inheritance of acquired traits

58
Q

Natural selection

A

Caused by natural forces

59
Q

Artificial selection

A

Caused by humans

60
Q

Process of natural selection

A

Variations (mutations in genes) in traits exists in populations
Traits that increase fitness are called adaptations
The next generation will have more of the fitter trait

61
Q

Founder effect

A

Occurs when a small sample of a larger population establishes a new population

62
Q

Population bottleneck

A

When a large population is reduced randomly such as a natural disaster

63
Q

Biological species concept

A

A group of individuals that in nature can interbreed and produce fertile offspring but cannot reproduce with members of other species

64
Q

Prefertilization barriers (prezygotic)

A

Spatial- separated in space
Behavioral- mating rituals
Mechanical- sex organ incompatibly
Temporal- timing of mating season
Gamete incompatibility- proteins on the egg prevent sperm from binding

65
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

Speciation that occurs in different locations

66
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

Speciation that occurs in the same location

67
Q

Biotic vs abiotic

A

Alive vs not alive

68
Q

Levels of organization

A

Species, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere

69
Q

Population density

A

How many individuals live in an area (individuals/area)

70
Q

Population distribuations

A

Uniform, random, clumped

71
Q

Exponential growth

A

Populations have unlimited resources

72
Q

Logistic growth

A

Population has limited resources

73
Q

What are the interactions during symbiosis

A

Mutualism- both species benefit
Commensalism- one species benefits the other in unaffected
Parasitism- one species benefits the other is negatively affected

74
Q

Food webs

A

Show many interconnected paths
Arrows point in the direction of energy flow

75
Q

Trophic levels

A

The amount of energy decreases at each level
Each level is only 10% of the previous
Less animals as you move up the food chain

76
Q

Nutrient cycle

A

The movement and exchange of key nutrients among biotic and abiotic factors

77
Q

Pathogens

A

Anything foreign to the body that causes disease, such as viruses, bacteria, mold, mildew

78
Q

Innate immunity

A

Defense that you are born with, They are present all the time and affects many pathogens

79
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

Are gained over time as you are exposed to new pathogens. Develops a defense that is specific to the pathogen

80
Q

Lymphatic system

A

A series vessels that move through the tissues of the body. It drains, cleans, and returns fluid (lymph) back to the tissues

81
Q

B cells

A

Recognize intact antigens that are on the surface of pathogens or circulating freely in body fluids

82
Q

T cells

A

Recognize fragments of antigen displayed on the surface of an infected cell

83
Q

Arteries

A

Blood vessels that take blood AWAY from the hearts
To the body= oxygenated
From the hearts to the lung= deoxygenated

84
Q

Veins

A

Blood vessels that take blood TOWARD the heart
From the body to the heart= deoxygenated
From the lungs to the heart= oxygenated

85
Q

Types of Animal Respiration

A

Skin- entire body surface
Gills- extensions of the body surface
Tracheae- Branching internals tubes
Lungs- localized internal organs

honors bio (5 decks)

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