final Flashcards
Hormones act two ways: water soluble and lipid soluble. Describe them.
Water soluble= cannot enter the cell (must use second messengers)
Lipid soluble= enters the cell without problems
What hormones are stored in the posterior pituitary lobe? Where specifically are they stored?
Oxytocin + ADH
Stored in the axon terminals ready to go
What is the function of prolactin (PRL)?
Stimulates milk production
What hormones are stored in the anterior pituitary lobe?
Growth hormone
Thyroid hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Follicle stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Prolactin hormone
What hormone do parathyroid cell release? When are they secreted?
Parathyroid hormone; secreted when calcium is too low
The adrenal gland secrete aldosterone, what function does this have?
Stimulate sodium reabsorption by the kidneys (to regulate BP, and make it rise)
What do alpha cells in the pancreas secrete? Beta cells?
Glucagon; insulin
What is the function of glycogenolysis?
(Raise blood sugars) Break down glucagon into glucose, synthesize glucose with lactic acid + noncarbohydrates, release the glucose into the blood steam
What is the function of estrogen?
To mature the reproductive organs, and secondary sexual characteristics
What is the function of testosterone?
Produced by the testes will mature male organs, sperm production, and sex drive
What is the main function of blood?
To transport oxygen
Define hematocrit
The percent volume of blood composed of RBCs
Define alpha/beta globulins present in the blood plasma. Define gamma globulins.
Alpha/beta = produced by the liver, transport proteins to bind to the lipids
Gamma = antibodies released by plasma during an immune response
Define the function of erythropoietin (EPO).
EPO is stimulates the formation of RBCs, it is released by the kidneys
What is blood doping?
The removal, storage, and reinfusal of RBCs to increase oxygen levels for stamina
Define the function of neutrophils.
Are phagocytic, arrive first on the scene, are the most numerous in the blood
Define the function of eosinophils.
Made for worm parasites, digest worm surfaces through grain enzymes
Define the function of basophils.
They release histomine which cause swelling to avoid bacteria from infecting
There are two kinds of lymphocytes, T cells and B cells. What function are the B cells?
Upon interaction they make new antibodies
Describe the function of monocytes.
Undergo phagocytosis
What are platelets?
They are cell fragments of larger megakaryocytes
What does it mean if you are Rh-?
You have been exposed to the presence of a D antigen (these antigens aren’t made until you come into contact with + blood), these people should only receive blood that’re Rh-
Which blood group are universal donors? Which are universal recipients?
O negative; AB blood
What is the positive result for blood typing?
When blood does not clump
Vessels going away from the heart are ____, vessels going towards the heart are ____.
Arteries; veins
What is the fossa ovalis in the heart?
The remnant of foremen ovale of a fetal heart (closes after brith)
The right ventricle pumps into the ____, the left ventricle pumps into the ____.
Pulmonary trunk; the aorta
The tricuspid valve is on the _____, the mitral valve is on the ___.
Right AV, Left AV
Are there gap junctions between cells in skeletal muscle? In cardiac muscle?
No because they function as a unit; yes because the gaps create a functional syncytium (joining of 2+ cells)
What is the sequence of excitation?
- SA node generates impulse
- AV node delays the impulse
- the AV bundle contents the atria to the ventricles
- The bundle branches conduct impulses through the interventricular septum
- The purkinje fibers depolarizes the contractile cells of both ventricles
What occurs at the p wave?
What occurs at the QRS complex?
What occurs at the t wave?
P-wave = atrial depolarization
QRS-complex = Q av node delays signal, R ventricular depolarization, S contraction is complete
T-wave = ventricular repolarization
What is the stroke volume?
The volume of blood that is pumped with each beat of the heart
What’re lactiles in the lymphatic system?
They take lipids and move them across the lymphatic system to the heart
In the larger lymphatic vessels, what is the function of the thoracic duct?
To drain the rest of the body
What’re lymphoid follicles?
They’re located in the germinal center, they’re tightly packed lymphoid cells and they proliferate b-cells
What’re your primary lymph organs? Your secondary lymph organs?
Thymus + red bone marrow;
Lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, Peyer patches, appendix
What’re the functions of the spleen?
- House lymphocyte proliferation + immune surveillance
- Cleanse body of old RBCs and platelets
- Store RBC breakdown for reuse
- Store platelets + monocytes
- Site for fetal RBC production
What’re the MALT organs?
Tonsils, Peyer’s patches, appendix
What is the function of the tonsils? The Peyer’s patches? The appendix?
Tonsils = gather and remove pathogens from the air
Peyer patches = align in small intestines
Appendix = destroy bacteria and prevent breaching of intestine, make memory lymphocytes
The thymus has _____ so there is no _____. Its stroma is made of ___.
No follicules; B cells; epithelial cells
What is the innate defenses? The adaptive defenses?
Innate = surface barriers, and internal defenses
Adaptive = providing immunity (takes longer) , B cells and T cells
Summarize phagocytosis
- Phagocyte adheres to pathogen via receptors
- Phagocyte forms pseudopods that engulf particles
- Lysosome fuses with vesicle
- Lysosomal enzymes destroy pathogens
- Exocytosis of vesicle removes residual material
define opsinization
The immune system will attach to capsule and create a “handle” to grab onto
Define helper t-cells
Trigger respiratory burst in macrophages (via free radicals, oxidizing chemicals, high ph, high osmolarity)
What is the function of natural killer cells?
Non phagocytic, they’re the “police”, attach to cells for apoptosis and they kill cancer cells +virus infected cells
What is the function of an inflammatory response? What’re the four signs of it?
Localized inflammatory to prevent the spread of pathogens
Redness, pain, swelling, heat
Summarize the 3 stages of inflammatory response
- Histamine is released, cytokines attract phagocytes to the area
- Vasodilation occurs to increase blood flow, exudates leak into the tissue that contain antibodies and blood clotting factors
- Leukocytes are increased
Define the two kinds of antimicrobial proteins.
Interferon = “warning system” released as a method of preparation (antiviral proteins produced)
Complement = groups of protein that destroy bacteria
From a fever, describe pyrogens.
Cells can change temperature either that of the body or just localized
Define antigens
Mobilize adaptive defense, they’re the “target” of the immune response
Summarize the adaptive defense mechanism
- B and T cells originate in bone marrow
- T cells mature in the thymus, B cells mature in the bone marrow; here they develop immune competence and self tolerance
- Naive lymphocytes leave location and “seed” through lymph organs while circulating
- Lymphocyte encounters antigen, and lymphocyte is activated
- Proliferation into memory cells and effector cells, circulate continuously
What may B cells become?
Plasma or memory cells
What is an example of passive + natural antibodies?
(No memory cells) antibodies are passed from the mother to the fetus through birth and breast milk
Define the antibody IgG
The largest class of antibodies
CD8 cells bind to ____ and become ____
Class I MHC; Cytotoxic T cells, become bounty hunters for life
Define cytokines
They’re the chemical messengers of the immune system
CD4 cells bind to _____ and become ___
Class II MHC proteins;
Helper cells/ regulatory cells
Define helper T cells
They activate and recruite the immune system to get a job done
Define the tunica media of a blood vessel
The middle muscle layer, conducts vasoconstriction or vasodilation, the bulkiest layer made of mostly elastin
What is the function of capillaries?
To exchange gasses and hormones between the blood and interstitial fluid
Define a sinusoidal capillary type
Allows blood to flow into an area slowly (liver, bone marrow, spleen, adrenal medulla)
They have the largest clefts/fenestrations, “Swiss cheese”
Summarize BP as they pass through the systemic circuit
Continuously lowers, highest at aorta and lowest at vena cavae
Friction rises with greater ___,____,___
Viscosity, vessel length, vessel diameter
If the change of pressure is greater, blood flow ____
Speeds up
If the change in resistance is greater, blood flow ____
Slows down
Identify the function of norepinephrine on blood
Increase cardiac output and vaso constriction
Identify the function of angiotensin II on blood
Stimulates vasoconstriction
Identify the function of ADH on blood
Cause vasoconstriction
Identify the function of atrial natriuretic peptide
To decrease BP
At capillary exchange, the velocity of blood flow is ____
The slowest
Define colloid osmotic pressure
Using proteins to make water move across
What is the net fluid movement at the arteriolar end of a capillary? At the venous end?
Net is going out (filtration), which is good because it’s “taking out the trash”
Net is going in (reabsorption), which is good because the lymph system is preventing swelling
Where is the carina of trachea? know anatomy
It separates the bronchus
What is the larynx?
Designated air way, voice production box
What is the trachea?
A flexible pipe that adjusts to needs, supported by ring like structure and contracts during cough
What’re the type 1 cells in the respiratory membrane? Type 2?
Type 1 = simple squamous epithelium
Type 2 = secretes surfactant (breaks surface tension) and antimicrobial proteins
Does the respiratory membrane have a fused basement membrane?
Yes
Define intraplural pressure
Pressure in the pleural cavity, prevents lung collapse
Lung has natural tendency to recoil, also has surface tension on alveoli to reduce its size
Define boyle’s law
Volume changes with pressure
Summarize the sequence of events in inspiration
- Inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends, rib cage rises)
- Thoracic cavity volume increase
- Lungs are stretched, intrapulmonary volume increases
ventilation graph
Identify IRV, TV, ERV,RV
Top to bottom
Define Dalton’s law
The total pressure of mixture equals the sum of each partial pressure
Define Henry’s law
When gas touches liquid, some gas’s dissolve easily due to pressure/temp
What changes the structure of hemoglobin?
Temp, pH, BPG
Bicarbonate ions are ___ so they do not release many hydrogen protons
Weak
Define chlorine shift
An outrush of bicarbonate ions is balanced with large influx of chlorine
H2CO3 forms
Bicarbonate acid
Slow shallow breath induce ___ co2, ___ ph, ____ environment
High, low, acidic
Rapid deep breath induce ___ co2, ___ph, ___ environment
Low, high, basic
What is the role of the messentry in the abdominal cavity?
To hold organs in place and provide a route for vessels to go through
picture label the mucosa, submucosa, muscular is externa, serosa
Inside towards out
What does the hepatic portal circulation do?
Moves nutrient rich cells from the organs to the liver to make “human protein”
What is the function of amylase?
Breaks carbs into simple sugars
What does the stomach make of bolus?
Chyme
What do parietal cells secrete in the stomach?
They make hydrochloric acid for sterilization, glycoprotein to absorb B12, activate the make for pepsin
What do chief cells make in the stomach?
Make pepsinogen and lipase (that digest lipids through the blood stream)
What is the function of the liver?
To detoxify, monitor pathogens, and recycle RBCs
Everything from the digestive system is processed in the liver
It emulsifies fats, and bile salts are reabsorbed in the ileum
Define the function of the hepatopancreatic sphincter
To open into the duodenum
