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Biodiversity > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

Drosophila melanogaster (the common fruit fly)

A

Often used for understanding evolution because of:
- Short life cycle (~3 weeks
from egg to adult)
- Fast reproductive rate
- Simple genetic structure &
easy to detect changes

Floating Fruit Flies / when one populations floats to another island

Populations experience different:
Selective pressures Random events

Leading to changes in morphology, food preferences, and behaviors over the course of MANY GENERATIONS of natural selection

If they meet again- new mating will not occur between island flies and original population

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2
Q

3 main categories for conservation genetics:

A
  1. Genetic management of small populations to maximize the retention of genetic diversity and minimize inbreeding.
  2. Resolution of taxonomic uncertainties and delineation of management units based on genetic characteristics of populations
  3. Use genetic analyses in forensics, especially in the enforcement of conservation laws and treaties, and in understanding the biology of target species
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3
Q

Soule 1973:
6 factors that account for loss of genetic variation in marginal populations:

A
  1. Inbreeding
  2. Reduced gene flow
  3. Genetic drift
  4. Problems associated with effective
    population size
  5. Reduced variation in niche width
  6. Directional selection

Small populations can result in a loss of heterozygosity in the population.

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4
Q

Inbreeding: the mating of individuals having any degree of genetic relatedness à resulting in inbreeding depression in a population.

A

Leads to expression of deleterious, recessive alleles: Heterozygosity and fecundity are reduced and mortality is increased

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5
Q

Genetic rescue:

A

the introduction of genetic variation into small inbred populations

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6
Q

Genetic rescue: Case Study: Adders (Vipera berus) in Southern Sweden

A

Confinedtoacoastalstripofgrassymeadow1kmx50–200m * Isolatedfromotherpopulationsfor>100years
* Nearestpopulationis20kmNorth
* Possibletocapturealladultmaleseveryspring
* Dramaticdeclineledtoinbreedingdepression
* Highproportionofdeformedorstillbornoffspring * Lowgeneticvariability

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7
Q

Global Change
(as defined by the journal Global Change Biology):

A

Any consistent trend in the environment - past, present or projected - that
affects a substantial part of the globe.

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8
Q

Components of Global Change

A

Invasive Species, Habitat Change, Pollution, Climate Change and overexploitation

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9
Q

Causes of
recent
extinctions:
(since 1500AD)

A

Alien species have played a role in:
28% of plant extinctions (#4)
67% of Amphibian extinctions (#1)
67% of Reptile extinctions (#1)
60% of Avian extinctions (#2, overexploitation is #1)
70% of Mammal Extinctions (#1)

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10
Q

Invasive Species

A

A species that arrives (often with human assistance) in a habitat that had not been previously occupied, then establishes a population and spreads autonomously

Island endemics most impacted group

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11
Q

Islands represent

A

less that 5% of the Earth’s land mass
40% of animals currently at risk of extinction
80% of known extinctions since 1500 ad

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12
Q

Impacts from Invasive Species

A
  • Ecosystem modification
    *Resource competition with native species *Increased rates of predation on native species
    *Alteration of flora though herbivory *Introduction of pathogens and parasites to habitat
    *Hybridization with native species
    *Chain reactions
    *Invasional meltdown
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13
Q

Resource competition with native species

A

ßHere in NYC, European starlings and house sparrows compete with native species for food and nest cavities

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14
Q

Increased rates of predation on native species

A

Numbers of threatened and extinct bird (B), mammal (M), and reptile (R) species negatively affected by invasive mammalian predators.
17

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15
Q

Increased rates of predation on native species

A

Cane Toads in Australia

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16
Q

Alteration of flora though herbivory

A

Goat Removal in Project Isabela- Restoration of Pinta, Santiago, and northern portion of Isabela Islands

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17
Q

Introduction of pathogens and parasites to habitat

A

Crayfish plague (Aphanomyces astaci) was introduced with 2 species of North American crayfish and “devastated” native European crayfish.

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18
Q

Hybridization with native species

A

If invasive species are sufficiently closely related to native species- they may be able to mate and exchange genes.

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19
Q

Introgression=

A

a sufficient amount of gene exchange occurs that the genetic constitution of the native species is changed. A sort of genetic extinction.

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20
Q

Chain reactions

A
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21
Q

Invasional meltdown

A

In which 2 or more invasive species interact in such a way that the probability of survival and/or the impact of at least one of them is enhanced”

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22
Q

7 Stages of Predictable Pattern of Successful Invasion

A

Introduction
Survival of Introduced Plant
Reproduction
Survival of Progeny
Dispersal
Establishment
Adaptation to new environment
Colonization of new habitat

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23
Q

Characteristics of Successful Invading Species

A

The invading species can deliver seeds, breeding individuals, or other types of propagules at a high rate at an opportune moment for invasion and at a high density to an opportune site or sites.

The invading species is able to persist for extended periods at low densities under unfavorable conditions until favorable conditions permit it to grow to higher densities.

The invading species is a good “ecologic match” for the environment, and is able to exploit local conditions and abiotic factors that favor completion of its life cycle as well or better than native species.

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24
Q

More likelihood of success (introduc8on/i nvasion) if:

A

1) More individuals are released
2) More release sites are used
3) Releases are repeated many Ames
4) Ability to overcome Allee effects and escape the small
populaAon paradigm
5) Ecological match of pre-adaptaAon

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25
Q

Predicting invasions: Ecological Niche
Modelling (remember this?!)

A

Maxent models to predict invasion using records from native and invasive range- identified multiple areas where invasion is likely if squirrels were released

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26
Q

How Can We Control Invasions?

A

EARLY SMALL POPULATION ONE LOCATION

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27
Q

Stages of Invasion

A

Introduction, Establishment, Invasion proliferation Invasion impact,

Prevention
Eradication
Containment
Suppression

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28
Q

What if it’s too late?

A

Focus on ‘Functional eradication’

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29
Q

Herpetology

A

The study of ectothermic tetrapods –Amphibians
–Reptiles

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30
Q

Poikilotherms

A

body temperature varies with environment

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31
Q

Homeotherms

A

Body temperature relatively constant regardless of
environment

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32
Q

Ectotherms

A

control body temperature using external energy

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33
Q

Endotherms

A

control body temperature using internal energy

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34
Q

Why be endothermic

A

Allows organisms to live in environments in which the average temperature is lower than their body temperature (35-40°C)

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35
Q

Ectotherms

A

Primarily behavioral adaptations,
but also some physiological (e.g. freeze resistant frogs!)
Cold? Get in the sun Hot? Get out of the sun

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36
Q

Habitat destruction

A

Habitat destruction is the most important driver of species extinction worldwide.

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37
Q

Habitat destruction

A

when a natural habitat, such as a forest or wetland, is altered so dramatically that it no longer supports the species it originally sustained.

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38
Q

Riverine Systems

A

Between 1950 & 1986 more than 45,000 large dams constructed * 60% of 227
Large River Basins studied show strong or moderate
fragmentation and altered flows

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39
Q

Habitat Loss (per se)

A

Loss of habitat area

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40
Q

Habitat Fragmentation (per se)

A

Areas of habitat further apart
Greater ‘Edge’ effects

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41
Q

Natural Causes of Fragmentation

A

Complex patch Less distinct edge
Source: Frey ©CBC-AMNH

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42
Q

Human Causes of Fragmentation

A

Distinct edge Simplified patch

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43
Q

Understanding the role of habitat: biogeography

A

Relationships between size of geographic area, isolation, and species diversity

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44
Q

what is an ”island”

A

Any portion of isolated habitat
Mountain tops Lakes Land islands

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45
Q

Why the between area and species richness?

A

Larger areas …
* Likely have more resources
* Can support larger populations, less vulnerable to
extinction
* Have greater niche diversity (support more species
richness)
* An environmental perturbation may not affect whole
area

46
Q

Trophic rank and the species-area relationship

A

Strength of the relationship between richness and area should increase with increasing trophic rank

47
Q

Rate of Immigration:

A

rate of arrival of new species on an island

48
Q

Rate of Extinction:

A

rate at which species go extinct on an island

49
Q

Species richness on islands can be modeled as a dynamic balance between immigration and extinction of species

A

Immigration rates are highest on new island, while extinction rates are highest at high densities of species on an island.

50
Q

Island Biogeography Theory (IBT)

A

Species richness on an island is determined by distance from ‘mainland’ and island size

51
Q

Summary: Species Richness Patterns

A

Species richness increases with island area (Species-Area Relationship)

Species richness decreases with island isolation (distance from mainland and other islands)

52
Q

Metapopulation Theory (MT)

A

Metapopulation = set of distinct subpopulations linked via dispersal
* Similarities with IBT
* Focus on patchy populations
* Assumes hostile/homogeneous “matrix”
* Colonization and extinction
seen as key to predicting persistence

  • BUT different in that . . .
  • Assumes network of patches with NO persistent mainland
  • inadequate dispersal can lead to
    regional extinction
  • Focus on dynamic of single species
53
Q

Habitat fragments are like islands

A

Smaller patches have greater ‘edge effects’

Fragmentation increases edge areas

Edge habitats expose species to predators and nest parasites

Edges can have greater species diversity than contiguous habitat

BUT can result in loss of interior-specialist species

54
Q

Effects of change at multiple scales

A
  • Overall reduction in amount of remaining natural habitat (landscape scale).
  • Reduction in patch area
  • Increase in patch isolation (lost connectivity).
  • Increase in perimeter-area ratios (increased edge).
    *Altered diversity of habitat types. * Result = “islands” of vegetation in “sea” of matrix habitat.
55
Q

IBT and MT: conservation implications

A

Major Conclusion: spatial strategies aimed at increasing connectivity can play an important role in mitigating effects of habitat fragmentation.

56
Q

A Partial Solution? Habitat Corridors

A

Corridors: strip of habitat connecting similar habitat types patches across a landscape.

Such corridors can help mitigate the effects of habitat fragmentation

Good corridors must be developed in areas that the targeted organisms naturally use.

57
Q

Fish Ladder:

A

a structure designed to allow fish the opportunity to migrate upstream over or through a barrier to fish movement.*

58
Q

HIPCO

A

Habitat Change
Invasive Species
Pollution
Climate Change
Over-exploitation

59
Q

Overexploitation

A

Overexploitation occurs when the harvest rate of any given population exceeds its natural replacement rate, either through reproduction alone in closed populations or through both reproduction and immigration from other populations.

60
Q

tragedy of the commons

A

The thesis of the “tragedy of the commons” is that individuals are inherently selfish and usually place their own interests first in using commonly owned resources, thereby resulting in their depletion. Hardin used a hypothetical and simplified situation based on medieval land tenure in Europe (herders sharing a common parcel of land) on which each herder was entitled to graze his cattle. Each herder maximized his gains by putting additional cattle onto the land, even if the carrying capacity of the common was exceeded and overgrazing ensued. The herder, by making an “individually rational decision,” received all the benefits from his cattle, but could in the process deplete the common resource for the entire group. If all herders make such selfish decisions then the common will be depleted, jeopardizing the livelihoods of all.

61
Q

Minimum Viable Population (MVP) size

A

the smallest number of individuals required for an isolated population to persist (at some predefined ‘high’ probability) for some ‘long’ time into the future. In other words, the MVP size is the number of individuals in the population that is needed to withstand normal (expected) variation in all the things that affect individual persistence through time.

62
Q

Why did the US realize we need to conserve?

A

Much of the early (western) realization for the need to conserve species was prompted by losses due to overexploitation.- American Buffalo, and Passer Pidgeon

63
Q

Exotic

A

A species that does not have a history of domestication.

64
Q

Pet

A

An animal kept within a domestic setting, where its main purpose is for personal interest, entertainment, or companionship.

65
Q

Wildlife trade is worth billions of dollars/year ($12 billion ILLEGAL)

A
  • Food
  • Clothing
  • Decorativeitems
  • Pets
  • TraditionalMedicine
66
Q

Forest fragmentation increases risks

A

from pet trade to bird populations

67
Q

1900- Lacey Game and Wild Birds Preservation and Disposition Act

A

It is unlawful to import, export, sell, acquire, or purchase fish, wildlife or plants that are taken, possessed, transported, or sold: 1) in violation of U.S. or Indian law, or 2) in interstate or foreign commerce involving any fish, wildlife, or plants taken possessed or sold in violation of State or foreign law.

68
Q

1918- Migratory Bird Treaty Act

A

makes it illegal for anyone to take, possess, import, export, transport, sell, purchase, barter, or offer for sale, purchase, or barter, any migratory bird, or the parts, nests, or eggs of such a bird except under the terms of a valid permit issued pursuant to Federal regulations.

69
Q

The Endangered Species Act (ESA)

A

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) is widely considered one of the most powerful environmental laws ever passed by any Nation.

70
Q

CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.

A

To ensure that any international commercial trade in wild species is sustainable, and does not pose a threat to the species in the wild.

71
Q

CITES App 1

A

Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.

72
Q

CITES APP 2

A

Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.

73
Q

CITES APP 3

A

Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.

74
Q

Can we ‘exploit’ a
natural resource
sustainably?

A

Yes- By taking advantage of the natural replacement/growth rates of species

75
Q

population dynamics / natural resource
sustainably

A

The interplay of environmental resistance and biotic potential drives two reproductive strategies: r- selected species, and K- selected species

76
Q

Reproductive strategies: r- strategists

A

r-strategists (r-selected species):
produce lots of young, but leave their
survival to nature
–results in low recruitment
–rapid reproduction, rapid movement, short life span
–adapted to a rapidly changing environment
–“boom-and-bust” populations
–“weedy” or “opportunistic” species, usually small
–a housefly, dandelion, and cockroach are examples

77
Q

Reproductive strategies: K- strategists

A

K-strategists (K-selected species): lower biotic potential
–care for and protect young
–live in a stable environment already populated
by the species
–larger, longer lived, well-adapted to normal environmental fluctuations
–their populations fluctuate around carrying capacity
–also called equilibrial species
–an elephant and California condor are examples

78
Q

Species have predictable responses to human activities

A

–r-strategists become pests if humans change an area
–houseflies, dandelions, and cockroaches increase
–K-strategists become rarer or extinct with change
–eagles, bears, and oaks decline
–An exception: rare opportunistic species (r-selected) separated from new habitat
–they cannot succeed, despite high biotic potential

79
Q

A biologically defined population

A

is one defined by how the organisms organize themselves in the landscape

80
Q

geographically or politically defined population

A

is all the individuals occurring within administrative units imposed by humans.

81
Q

What are population dynamics?

A

–The changes in a population over time –Result from changes in the number and
composition of individuals in the population. –Accounted for by five basic components:
– births
– deaths
–sex ratio –age structure – dispersal

82
Q

What makes a population grow?

A

Birth rates & Immigration

83
Q

What makes a population shrink?

A

Death rates & Emigration

84
Q

Carrying capacity (K)

A

The maximum population of a species a habitat can support

Maximum Sustainable yield is ½ of K

85
Q

What factors limit population size?

A

Population density: number of individuals per unit area
–Trees per hectare, cells per mL, lichen per m2

–Density-dependent factor: increases with increased population density
–Disease, predation, food shortages

–Density-independent factor: effects are independent of the density of the population
–Spring freeze, fire

86
Q

What happens to a population when resource consumption is greater than replenishment?

A

The resource base shrinks
Mortality increases, fecundity decreases, or both happen

87
Q

Maximum sustainable yield (MSY)-

A

Maximum Sustainable yield is ½ of K

the largest catch that can be taken from a specific stock over an indefinite period under constant environmental conditions

88
Q

Total allowable catch (TAC)

A

upper limit in amount of fish that a fishery is allocated in a single year. Often set based on population monitoring and MSY

89
Q

Individual transferable quotas (ITQ)

A

Individuals ‘own’ and may transfer access to harvest a quantity of fish (either in units or as a percentage of the TAC of a whole fishery)

90
Q

Climate change is REAL.

A

It is caused by PEOPLE. (Especially US)

It affects EVERYONE.
(But especially poor/vulnerable groups)

We can make changes to SLOW IT.
(and reach a less-extreme climate equilibrium).

91
Q

Weather

A

Weather: day-to-day variations in temperature, air pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation
– Variable, short-term, local

92
Q

Climate

A

long-term regional weather patterns
– Involving decades or longer
– Controlled by the Sun’s radiation, Earth’s tilt, atmosphere’s chemistry, movement/mixing of oceans

93
Q

Meteorology

A

the study of the atmosphere – Weather and climate

94
Q

Earth’s solar- energy balance

A

Thirty percent of the Sun’s incoming radiation is reflected back to space—the rest is absorbed by the oceans, land,
and atmosphere

95
Q

Forcing factors- Earth’s heat budget.

A

The warmth of the atmosphere depends on: –Internal factors: oceans, gases in the atmosphere,
snow cover, sea ice
–External factors: solar radiation, Earth’s rotation, slow changes in Earth’s orbit

96
Q

Radiative forcing:

A

the influence any factor has on the energy balance of the Atmosphere- ocean-land system
– Positive (Warming) factors= Greenhouse gases
– Negative (cooling) factors= Albedo effect (reflect the heat)

97
Q

The greenhouse effect

A

Solar radiation reaching Earth is converted to infrared radiation and is radiated upward. GHGs intercept this radiation and are warmed, which warms Earth.

98
Q

What is the opposite of the greenhouse effect?

A

The Albedo effect

99
Q

Threats to albedo- pollution

A

From Greenland’s ice sheets to Himalayan glaciers and the snowpacks of western North America, layers of dust and soot are darkening the color of glaciers and snowpacks, causing them to absorb more solar heat and melt more quickly, and earlier in spring

100
Q

Negative forcing factors: clouds

A

–Clouds can impart a negative forcing factor (cooling)
–Albedo: the reflectivity of Earth’s surface to sunlight
–Prevents some warming
–Thick, low-lying clouds have an albedo effect
–High, wispy clouds have a positive forcing effect
–By absorbing some solar radiation and releasing some infrared radiation
–The net impact of clouds?
–A slightly positive forcing factor

101
Q

Albedo

A

The reflectivity of Earth’s surface to sunlight
–Prevents some warming

102
Q

The cryosphere:

A

snow, glaciers, ice sheets, sea ice

103
Q

Negative forcing factors: the cryosphere

A

–The cryosphere: snow, glaciers, ice sheets, sea ice
–Reflect sunlight, contributing to planetary albedo –Cooling the planet
–Arctic warming has reduced this effect
–Open water and darker, unfrozen ground absorb more sunlight than ice and snow

104
Q

Aerosols

A

microscopic liquid or solid particles

105
Q

Negative forcing factors: aerosols

A

–Industrial aerosols: from ground-level pollution
– Cancel some warming from greenhouse gases
– Sulfates, nitrates, dust, industrial soot, forest fires
–Aerosol haze is created from industrial aerosols reacting with atmospheric compounds
– Scatters sunlight and helps form clouds, increasing planetary albedo
–Sooty aerosols: from fires—have a warming effect –Industrial sulfate aerosols: create clouds and cooling

106
Q

Negative forcing factors: volcanoes

A

Volcanoes can lead to planetary cooling –Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991
–Released 20 million tons of particles and aerosols, causing significant temperature drop
–Radiation was reflected and scattered
–Lasted years, until the debris was cleansed from
the atmosphere
–Sulfate aerosols have a longer-term cooling effect
–They have increased since 2000, reducing some warming that would have occurred

107
Q

What gases are responsible for warming

A

CO2, the most abundant noncondensing gas, is the key gas—the control knob—controlling temperature

108
Q

CO2,

A

the most abundant noncondensing gas, is the key gas—the control knob—controlling temperature

Seasonal changes in photosynthesis and respiration cause seasonal variations in CO2 levels
* Respiration (fall through spring): CO2 increases
* Photosynthesis (spring through fall): CO2 decreases

109
Q

Range shifts

A

Range-boundaries in the Northern hemisphere have shifted 6.1km per decade northward (or upward in elevation; Parmesan & Yohe 2003)

110
Q

Shifts in
phenology

A

Phenological responses have been 2.3 days earlier per decade for all species, but 5.1 days per decade earlier for species showing substantive change (Root et al. 2003)

Biodiversity (2 decks)

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