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Final Flashcards

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1
Q

what would a retrieval cue for a wedding first dance be?

A

song, outfits, etc.

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2
Q

putting yourself in the same environment as when the information was initially encoded is associated with which principle?

A

encoding specificity principle

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3
Q

does the encoding specificity principle make retrieval cues stronger or weaker?

A

stronger

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4
Q

remembering things in context with your emotion is associate with which type of retrieval?

A

state-dependent retrieval

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5
Q

how is retrieval associated with memory?

A

recall = strengthens memories.

recalling information helps you perform much better i.e., testing self (instead of just reading textbooks) helps solidify memory better

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6
Q

eyewitness testimony must be as complete as possible (and early as possible) to help avoid what?

A

retrieval-induced forgetting

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7
Q

retrieval process occurs where in the brain?

A

left frontal lobe

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8
Q

successful remembering is associated with which area of the brain?

A

hippocampus activity

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9
Q

H.M. had a portion of his temporal lobes removed, including the hippocampus. What sort of memory problems did he have?

  1. could not remember old information before the surgery (retrograde amnesia)
  2. could not remember new information (after surgery) (anterograde amnesia)
  3. lost short-term memory
A
  1. could not remember new information (after surgery) (anterograde amnesia)
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10
Q

if you successfully remember an event associated with a specific song, which parts of the brain will be involved?

A

hippocampus and auditory cortex (upper temporal lobe)

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11
Q

what is explicit memory?

A

when people consciously/intentionally retrieve past experiences

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12
Q

what is implicit memory?

A

when past experiences influence later behaviour/performance without an effort to remember

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13
Q

Which is most likely a common example of implicit memory?

  1. building IKEA furniture
  2. going on a hike of a new trail
  3. brushing your teeth
  4. recalling your grocery list
A
  1. brushing your teeth
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14
Q

what type of implicit memory is associated with the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice

A

procedural memory

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15
Q

how do we know that procedural memory does not require hippocampus activity?

A

people with amnesia can acquire procedural memory (they have damaged hippocampus)

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16
Q

what does reduced activity in the cortex compared to unprimed individuals say about priming?

A

individuals who were primed are better at recall

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17
Q

implicit memory is more associated with which area in the brain?

A

motor cortex

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18
Q

implicit memory or sensory features of a item is associated with which type of priming?

A

perceptual priming

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19
Q

perceptual priming occurs in which area of the brain?

A

right hemisphere, visual cortex

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20
Q

implicit memory for the meaning of a word or utility of an object (semantics) is associated with which type of priming?

A

conceptual priming

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21
Q

conceptual priming occurs in which areas of the brain?

A

left hemisphere, frontal lobe

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22
Q

which specific area of the brain explains why conceptual priming occurs where it does?

A

broca’s area

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23
Q

HMs gradual improvement on a target tracking game (without consciously remembering playing) is associated with which type of memory?

A

implicit memory -> procedural memory

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24
Q

facts and concepts (general knowledge) is associated with which type of explicit memory?

A

semantic memory

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25
Q

memories of personal experiences that occured in the past at a particular time and place is associated with which type of explicit memory?

A

episodic memory

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26
Q

smaller right hippocampus is associated with which type of memory deficiency?

A

severe deficient autobiographical memory

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27
Q

people who undergo episodic specificity training see improvements in what?

A

improves capability to imagine future scenarios

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28
Q

the lasting negative effect on later individual recall is associated with what?

A

collaborative inhibition

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29
Q

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time is associated with which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

transience

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30
Q

the more you study, the less time it takes to re-learn a list is associated with which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

transience

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31
Q

which type of transience is when later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier?

A

retroactive interference

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32
Q

which type of transience is when earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later?

A

proactive interference

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33
Q

a lapse in attention that results in memory failure is associated with which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

absentmindedness

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34
Q

remembering to do things in the future is associated with what type of absentmindedness?

A

prospective memory

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35
Q

the failure to retrieve information despite trying to produce it is associated with which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

blocking

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36
Q

assigning a recollection of an idea to the wrong source is associated with which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

memory misattribution

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37
Q

the way you’re asked something can affect the way you answer is associated with which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

suggestibility

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38
Q

the tendency to exaggerate change between present and past in which type of bias

A

egocentric bias

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39
Q

the intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget is associated with which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

persistence

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40
Q

which part of the brain is activated during persistence

A

amygdala

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41
Q

bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored is known as?

A

retrieval

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42
Q

external information that helps bring store information to mind is known as?

A

retrieval cue

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43
Q

negative spirals are associated with which type of retrieval

A

state-dependent retrieval

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44
Q

retrieving an item from long-term memory becomes impaired by the recall of related items (but not those specific items) due to what?

A

retrieval-induced forgetting

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45
Q

the idea that information omitted during initial recall is unlikely to be recalled again in the future, is associated with which type of forgetting?

A

retrieval-induced forgetting

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46
Q

general knowledge is associated with which type on long-term memory?

A

semantic memory

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47
Q

autobiographical knowledge is associated with which type of long-term memory?

A

episodic memory

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48
Q

hippocampal damage at birth may lead to what?

A

absentmindedness and disorientation

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49
Q

what is hippocampal amnesia?

A

difficulty imagining new experiences

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50
Q

how is hippocampal amnesia linked to memory?

A

to be able to imagine the future, you must be able to recombine elements of past experiences

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51
Q

what is alternate uses task (AUT)?

A

participants asked to generate unusual uses of common objects

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52
Q

what is a large amount of AUTs generated associated with?

A

linked with creativity which is associated with the capability to recall past events

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53
Q

AUT shows activity in which parts of the brain?

A

brain network supported episodic memory/future imagining and hippocampus

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54
Q

what’s an explanation for collaborative inhibition?

A

individual retrieval strategies disrupt others ; someone else speaking about their own retrieval strategy interrupts other’s processes .. they will remember what they said while forgetting other things

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55
Q

what is the collaborative remembering seen in close relationships known as?

A

transitive memory

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56
Q

absentmindedness occurs due to what?

A

lack of attention (which is required for encoding)

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57
Q

lack of attention, resulting in absentmindedness, is due to which areas of the brain being less asctivated?

A
  1. left frontal region during encoding -> less semantic encoding
  2. less hippocampal activity -> less encoding (episodic)
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58
Q

keeping a google calendar is an example of what?

A

intention offloading

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59
Q

blocking is common with names because of what?

A

less semantic memory processing

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60
Q

blocking can be due to damages to which part of the brain?

A

left temporal lobe, as a result of a stroke

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61
Q

the primary cause of eyewitness misidentification is associated which which of the seven “sins” of memory?

A

memory misattribution

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62
Q

eyewitness misidentification can be due to a distraction at the time of the event which is associated with what?

A

distraction at time of encoding

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63
Q

eyewitness misidentification can be due to a lapse of time which is associated with what?

A

memory misattribution due to transience

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64
Q

the recall of when, where, and how information was acquired is known as?

A

source memory

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65
Q

déja vu and misattribution during eyewitness testimony is associated with what?

A

source memory

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66
Q

memory misattribution is more likely to occur after damage to which part of the brain?

A

frontal lobe

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67
Q

the feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before, such as falsely identifying a random person’s face as a celebrity, is known as?

A

false recognition

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68
Q

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections is known as?

A

suggestibility

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69
Q

distorting influences on present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences is known as?

A

bias

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70
Q

the bias to reconstruct the past in a way that in consistent with the present is known as?

A

consistency bias

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71
Q

being more likely to recall past political stances as similar to current ones is an example of which type of bias?

A

consistency bias

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72
Q

the tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel now versus the past is associated with which type of bias?

A

change bias

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73
Q

couples rating their love as growing even though their ratings do not show it, is an example of which type of bias?

A

change bias

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74
Q

the detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events is known as?

A

flashbulb memories

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75
Q

flashbulb memories are due to?

A

emotional arousal creates stronger memories as well as the tendency to talk more about shocking events which is a form of recall -> strengthens memory

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76
Q

how does damage to the amygdala effect a person’s memory of events?

A

simply do not remember emotional memories more often than non-emotional memories

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77
Q

how does the amygdala enhance memory for emotional experiences?

A

amygdala releases stress hormones which signals the CNS which then enhances memory for emotional experiences

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78
Q

which hormones are released by the amygdala during emotional experiences?

A

adrenaline and cortisol

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79
Q

storing new information by converting it into mental pictures is known as?

A

visual imagery encoding

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80
Q

which type of judgement, case, visual or semantic, has the best performance on recall tests?

A

semantic judgement

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81
Q

if a participant was asked to think about the appearance of a word i.e., is HAT written in uppercase or lowercase, which type of judgement would that be?

A

case judgement

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82
Q

if a participant was asked to think about the sound of a word i.e., does hat rhyme with clothing, which type of judgement would that be?

A

rhyme judgement

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83
Q

if a participant was asked to think about the meaning of a word i.e., is hat a type of clothing, which type of judgement would that be?

A

semantic judgement

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84
Q

semantic encoding occurs in which regions of the brain?

A

lower left frontal lobe and inner left temporal

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85
Q

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory is known as?

A

semantic encoding

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86
Q

how are memories constructed?

A

memories are made by combining already known information with new information from the senses

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87
Q

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored is known as?

A

retrieval

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88
Q

the process of maintaining information in memory over time is known as?

A

storage

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89
Q

the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory is known as?

A

encoding

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90
Q

the ability to store and retrieve information over time is known as?

A

memory

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91
Q

HSAM stands for what?

A

highly superior autobiographical memory

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92
Q

when are pleasure centres activated?

A

during the expectation/craving stage

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93
Q

what is latent learning?

A

when something is learned but not seen as a behavioural change until later

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94
Q

what is shaping?

A

learning as a result of reinforcement of successive steps to final desired behaviour

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95
Q

A: What kind of correlation does a continuous reinforcement schedule have? ………………………………And B: what kind of correlation does an intermittent reinforcement schedule have?
1) A: r<1, B: r<1
2) A: r=1, B: r<1
3) A: r = 1, B: r=1
4) A: r<1, B: r=1

A

2) A: r=1, B: r<1

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96
Q

what is the intermittent reinforcement effect?

A

more resistant to extinction

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97
Q

what is intermittent reinforcement?

A

only some responses are followed by reinforcement

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98
Q

do FR or VR schedules have higher rates of response?

A

VR

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99
Q

what type of reinforcement are slot machines examples of?

A

VR schedule

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100
Q

what is variable-ratio (VR) schedule?

A

reinforcement based on average number of responses

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101
Q

which type of FR schedule is when reinforcement occurs after each response?

A

continuous reinforcement

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102
Q

10th free coffee free at starbucks is which type of schedule of reinforcement?

A

fixed-ratio schedule

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103
Q

which type of schedule leads to consistent responses since the next reinforcement time is less predictable?

A

variable-interval (VI) schedule

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104
Q

what is fixed-ratio (FR) schedule?

A

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

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105
Q

what is a variable-interval (VI) schedule?

A

correct behaviour is reinforced on same average time since last reinforcement

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106
Q

what enabled the learning of pigeons when they learnt to discriminate against impressionist art?

A

operant conditioning

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107
Q

how is driving through an intersection a behaviour that is under stimulus control?

A

red light -> stop: reward: don’t get into car crash
green light -> go through: don’t get into car crash
discriminative stimulus: which colour lights

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108
Q

behaviours are under which type of control?

A

stimulus control

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109
Q

T or F: more time between behaviour and reinforcer leads to a more effective reinforcer

A

false, more time between behaviour and reinforcer lead to a less effective reinforcer

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110
Q

which type of reinforcers are effective because of classical conditioning associations with the other type of reinforcer?

A

secondary reinforcer

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111
Q

money, verbal approvals and trophies are examples of which type of reinforcer?

A

secondary reinforcer

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112
Q

which type of reinforcer help satisfy biological needs or desires?

A

primary reinforcer

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113
Q

food and shelter are examples of which type of reinforcer?

A

primary reinforcer

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114
Q

why is reinforcement generally more effective than punishment?

A

punishment does not specify correct behaviours

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115
Q

parents reduce restrictions on where teen can drive as a reward for safe driving
a) positive reinforcement
b) positive punishment
c) negative reinforcement
d) negative punishment

A

c) negative reinforcement

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116
Q

Parents suspend driving privileges after teen is stopped for speeding.
a) positive reinforcement
b) positive punishment
c) negative reinforcement
d) negative punishment

A

d) negative punishment

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117
Q

Parents buy teen a new car as a reward for safe driving.
a) positive reinforcement
b) positive punishment
c) negative reinforcement
d) negative punishment

A

a) positive reinforcement

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118
Q

what determines if a stimulus is a reinforcer or punishment?

A

the way the stimulus is delivered

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119
Q

what is punishment?

A

stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it

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120
Q

what is a reinforcer?

A

stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it

121
Q

operant behaviours produce which type of response?

A

environmental

122
Q

what is operant behaviour?

A

behaviour that an organism performs that impacts the environment

123
Q

Would behavourists have liked Thorndike’s puzzle box experiments?

A

yes since its observable behaviour

124
Q

what is the law of effect?

A

satisfying behaviours tend to be repeated; unsatisfying behaviours are less likely to be repeated

125
Q

what behaviour was required of the cats in Edward Thorndike’s puzzle experiment?

A

instrumental behaviour

126
Q

what is instrumental behaviour?

A

behaviour that requires an organisms to DO something; manipulate the environment

127
Q

why is visual imagery encoding similar to semantic encoding?

A

requires the visual images to be related to what is already in the memory

128
Q

if you use visual imagery to encode verbal information, how many mental cues are you making?

A

two

129
Q

which region of the brain does visual imagery encoding activate

A

occipital lobe

130
Q

which type of encoding is the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items?

A

organizational encoding

131
Q

organizing items into a hierarchy is an example of which type of encoding?

A

organizational encoding

132
Q

why can we remember survival-related information so well?

A

encourages thinking of goals, engages in planning (which increases recall), combines elements of semantic, visual and organizational encoding

133
Q

storage that holds information for a few seconds or less is known as?

A

sensory memory

134
Q

the fast-decaying store of visual information, ~1second, is known as?

A

iconic memory

135
Q

the fast-decaying store of auditory information, ~5seconds, is known as?

A

echoic memory

136
Q

memory that holds non sensory information for more than a few seconds, but less than a minute, is known as?

A

short-term memory

137
Q

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it is known as?

A

rehearsal

138
Q

the effect that indicates that the first few, and last few, items are more likely to be recalled than items in the middle is known as?

A

serial position effect

139
Q

the primacy effect states that if you have more opportunity to rehearse the first items in a list, those items more likely get encoded where?

A

long-term memory

140
Q

T or F: the primacy effect and recency effect both result in either the first (primacy) or last (recency) items being more likely to get encoded into long-term memory.

A

False. while the primacy effect results in the increased likelihood of items being encoded into long-term memory, the rehearsal of the last items does not due to the recency effect.

141
Q

how many meaningful items can be held in short-term memory at once?

A

about 7

142
Q

you can increase short-term memory by using which method?

A

chunking

143
Q

what is chunking? which encoding does it utilize?

A

chunking is the combining of small pieces of information into larger chunks resulting in them being more easily held in short-term memory. organizational encoding.

144
Q

the active maintenance of information in short-term storage is known as?

A

working memory

145
Q

what are the 2 subsystems for information manipulation and storage?

A

visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop

146
Q

damage to the phonological loop results in which sorts of diffuculty?

A

holding onto strings of digits, letters, and learning new words

147
Q

which subsystems of the working memory, visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop, are used for visual images and verbal information?

A

phonological loop: verbal information
visuospatial sketchpad: visual images

148
Q

the episodic buffer does what?

A

integrates visual and verbal information from subsystems into a combined code

149
Q

which part of the working memory is the gateway to long-term memory?

A

episodic buffer

150
Q

the central executive does what?

A

coordinates subsystems and episodic buffer

151
Q

the central executive activates which region of the brain?

A

frontal lobe

152
Q

does the episodic buffer or central executive control the flow of information through the system?

A

central executive

153
Q

information held for hours, days, weeks and years is known as?

A

long-term memory

154
Q

the hippocampus is responsible for putting information into which type of store? long-term or short-term?

A

long-term store

155
Q

anterograde amnesia is what?

A

the inability to transfer new information from short-term store into long-term store

156
Q

retrograde amnesia is what?

A

the inability to retrieve information acquired before a certain date (injury, surgery)

157
Q

why is the hippocampus critical during memory formation?

A
  • indexes sensations in cortex to experience a single memory
  • gives a highly detailed memory of personal experience
158
Q

T or F: after encoding, memories are set

A

false. memories are fragile after encoding

159
Q

what is consolidation?

A

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

160
Q

recalling memories that results in the disruption of the original memory is known as?

A

reconsolidation

161
Q

does creating a memory involve changes in the short-term or long-term storage?

A

both short-term and long-term

162
Q

an example of changes in the synapse when creating short-term memory is?

A

more neurotransmitter release

163
Q

an example of changes in the synapse when creating long-term memory is?

A

growth of new synapses

164
Q

long-term potentiation is what?

A

the communication across synapses between neurons that strengthens their connection making further communication easier

165
Q

when LTP is blocked by drugs, how will animal’s ability to complete tasks be inhibited?

A

they will have trouble with tasks like mazes

166
Q

what is the term for an organism learning by watching other’s actions

A

observational learning

167
Q

if person A learns a behaviour from person B, and then person C learns the behaviour from person A, what is this called?

A

diffusion chain

168
Q

T or F: observational learning is unique to humans

A

False

169
Q

T or F: the enculturation hypothesis states that raisin chimpanzees in human culture INCREASES chimpanzees observational learning capacity

A

true, more likely to use tool efficiently (to human’s standards)

170
Q

what “third variables” could there be fore human-reared chumps’ superior observational learning?

A

chimpanzees raised in human environments are more likely to have already encountered that specific tool than chimps in nature

171
Q

what fires in the brain when an animals perform an action or when they watch someone else perform the action

A

mirror neurons

172
Q

T or F: mental practice of physical activity engages similar brain regions

A

true

173
Q

T or F: implicit learning is the same as latent learning

A

false, latent learning is when something is learnt but performance of behaviour isn’t seen till later on while implicit learning is learning without awareness

174
Q

habituation and repeated exposures reducing responses are examples of which type of learning?

A

implicit

175
Q

texting is an example of what type of learning

A

implicit

176
Q

knowing how to do something but not being able to explicitly describe the rules or “just knowing”, is common when you learn something which way?

A

implicitly

177
Q

individuals performing the serial reaction time task would see activity in which region of the brain in an fMRI scan?

A

motor cortex

178
Q

T or F: implicit learning is related to IQ

A

false

179
Q

is implicit or explicit learning more affected by agin/amnesia?

A

explicit learning is more affected

180
Q

participants not given specific instructions when looking at a bunch of dots, and then later asked to determine if the dot fits a specific pattern, show activity in which area of the brain?

A

implicit learning: increased occipital region activity

181
Q

participants given specific instructions to look for a pattern in dots when looking at a bunch of dots, and then later asked to determine if the dot fits a specific pattern, show activity in which area of the brain?

A

explicit learning: increased activity in left temporal lobe, right frontal lobe, parietal lobe

182
Q

highlighting, rereading, summarizing, visual imagery mnemonics are examples of which type of studying?

A

low utility

183
Q

distributed practice, interleaved practice, practice testing are examples of which type of studying?

A

high utility

184
Q

cramming is an example of which type of practice

A

massed practice

185
Q

study activities spread out with time between repetitions is which type of practice?

A

distributed practice

186
Q

T or F: more difficult retrieval equates to desirable difficulties

A

true

187
Q

mixing up the kinds of things you’re studying during a practice, is which type of practice?

A

interleaved practice

188
Q

doing the same kinds of questions/material in a session is an example of which type of practice?

A

blocked practice

189
Q

individual’s own ideas of their own performance/learning is known as?

A

judgements of learning (JOLs)

190
Q

T or F: study sessions typically end when a JOL question’s answer is yes

A

true true true … which is bad … bc JOLs can be inaccurate: easily convince self that material is known well enough

191
Q

perceptual priming/implicit memory are examples or low/high level processes?

A

low

192
Q

T or F: deeper learning promotes testing success

A

true

193
Q

T or F: practice testing has no correlation to performance on exams

A

false

194
Q

T or F: building desirable difficulties is a way to ensure good studying

A

true

195
Q

how experiences shape relatively permanent changes in someones state is known as?

A

learning

196
Q

changes to a nervous system because of experiences resulting in changes in behaviour is known as?

A

learning

197
Q

decreased GWR (gill withdrawal reflex) in aplysia due to continued gentle touch is known as?

A

habituation

198
Q

when a stimulus produces increased responses to later stimuli i.e., initial electric shock = strong GWR and then subsequent light touches = strong GWR, is known as?

A

sensitization

199
Q

when a previously neutral stimulus produces a response after pairing with a stimulus that naturally produces a response (forming associations), this is known as?

A

classical conditioning

200
Q

food is an example of what type of stimulus?

A

unconditioned stimulus (US) : stimulus that naturally produces a response

201
Q

salivation is an example of which type of response?

A

unconditioned response (UR): response after perceiving US

202
Q

giving a previously meaningless stimulus meaning is the goal of what?

A

classical conditioning

203
Q

Pavlovs neutral simulus (NS) was?

A

tones

204
Q

in CC, after the conditioning/acquisition phase, the NS should becomes a CS. what does this mean?

A

a neutral stimulus should become a conditioned stimulus (produces a response) after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (US)

205
Q

if a dog salivates after perceiving a tone (CS), this is an example of what?
- unconditioned response
- conditioned response

A

conditioned response, although it can look similar to the UR

206
Q

what is second-order conditioning?

A

creating a new conditioned stimulus by pairing it with a different (already) conditioned stimulus instead of an unconditioned stimulus

207
Q

the recovery of learned behaviour from extinction after a period of rest is known as?

A

spontaneous recovery

208
Q

if a slightly different CS is used (compared to the CS used during acquisition) but the CR is still observed, this is known as?

A

generalization

209
Q

if there is an awareness that two stimuli are not the same this is known as?

A

discrimination

210
Q

what does the Rescorla-Wagner model tell us?

A

conditioned stimuli teach animals to set up expectations

211
Q

T or F: the Rescorla-Wagner model supports behaviourism

A

false, it indicated a cognitive component to CC since the CS leads to an expectation of food which results in the CR of salivation, but also other responses like tail wagging, looking for food, begging, etc.

212
Q

will a familiar or unfamiliar stimulus make a better CS?

A

unfamiliar since it shouldn’t be associated with as many expectations

213
Q

which area of the brain is associated with the conditioning of motor skills?

A

cerenellum

214
Q

which area of the brain is associated with fear conditioning?

A

amygdala (midbrain increased heart rate), autonomic nervous system activity, hypothalamus (stress hormone regulation)

215
Q

the mental action of acquiring knowledge through thought, experience, and the senses is known as?

A

cognition

216
Q

the system for communicating with others using signals combined according to rules of grammar that convey meaning is known as?

A

language

217
Q

the set of rules that specify how units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages is known as?

A

grammar

218
Q

what are recognizable as speech?

A

phonemes

219
Q

what set of rules that is learnt without instruction, is common to every language and has to do with how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds?

A

phonological rules

220
Q

T or F: phonemes are the smallest meaningful units of language?

A

false. phonemes are the smallest units of sounds. morphemes are the smallest units of language but they’re made up of phonemes!

221
Q

what rule describes how morphemes can be combined to form rules?

A

morphological rules

222
Q

the order of basic to complex in language is?
a) morphemes; phonemes; words; phrases; sentence
b) morphemes; phonemes; words; sentence; phrases
c) phonemes; morphemes; words; sentence; phrases
d) phonemes; morphemes; words; phrases; sentence

A

d) phonemes; morphemes; words; phrases; sentence

223
Q

morphemes that contain things and events are known as?

A

content morphemes

224
Q

morphemes that permit expression of abstract ideas are known as?

A

function morphemes

225
Q

and, or, but, when: are all examples of which type of morpheme?

A

function morpheme

226
Q

prefixes/suffixes e.g., -s for plural or un- for reversal are examples of what?

A

function morphemes

227
Q

what are syntactic rules?

A

how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences

228
Q

at 12 months, roughly how many words should someone know?

A

~ 10

229
Q

at 5 years, roughly how many words should someone know?

A

~ 10,000

230
Q

the ability infants hold to distinguish between all human language sounds is lost within how many months?

A

6 months

231
Q

at 4-6 months, what speech production in expected?

A

babble

232
Q

T or F: there is a standard sequence across languages for leaning.. d and t appear before m and n

A

true

233
Q

T or F: toddlers generally learn verbs before nouns

A

false. they generally learn nouns before verbs

234
Q

what is fast mapping?

A

children map a word onto an undying concept after only a single exposure

235
Q

at ~24 months, what sort of speech is expected?

A

telegraphic speech, short sentences with only content words.. lacking function morphemes. ex: more milk, throw ball

236
Q

why do 4-5 year olds tend to use incorrect forms of grammar when 2-3 year olds use correct forms?

A

4-5 year olds are unlikely mimicking.. they’re creating. they will over regularize a rule, like adding “ed” for past tense.. so 2-3 year old will say “I ran”” whereas 4-5 year old will say “I ranned”

237
Q

what is the linguistic milestone sequence? at 12 months, 24 months and 3 years?

A

12 months: one-word speech
24 months: telegraphic speech
3 years: simple sentences with function morphemes

238
Q

what does nativist theory argue in terms of language?

A

language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity

239
Q

why is nativism accepted over behaviourism?

A
  • infants can distinguish between phonemes they’ve never heard
  • deaf infants babble
240
Q

explain how language has a critical period?

A

-difficult to learn after puberty
- proficiency of english by immigrants is related to their age of immigration, not their length of time speaking the language

241
Q

explain how the fMRI of Chinese adoptees with french parents (who dont remember speaking their native language) proves language has a lasting impact

A

their fMRIs were more similar to Chinese speakers than to french teens who were never exposed to Chinese

242
Q

parents tailoring verbal interactions with children to simplify language learning is an example of what?

A

interactionist approach

243
Q

what are the language centres in the brain?

A

Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and the right hemisphere

244
Q

what/where is Broca’s area?

A

language production of patterns in vocal and sign languages. left frontal cortex

245
Q

what/where is Wernicke’s area?

A

language comprehension (spoken or signed). left temporal cortex

246
Q

how are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area connected?

A

accurate fasciculus

247
Q

damage to language centres is known as? and results in?

A

aphasia: difficulty in producing or comprehending language

248
Q

why is the right hemisphere a language centre?

A

capacity for processing meaning

249
Q

damage to the right hemisphere does what, in terms of language?

A

subtle problems with language comprehension

250
Q

name one way language learning differs in apes

A
  1. primarily signs names for concrete objects/simple actions: limited conceptual repertoire
  2. limited understanding of grammar
  3. limited vocabularies: 100s of words vs 10,000 in humans by ~ 4
251
Q

what is the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

A

language shapes the nature of thought.. instead of language helping us express though, this argues that language actually shapes thought

252
Q

how does an isolated tribe being able to sort colour shades, when all they’ve known are the terms dark and light for colour, either support or discredit the linguisitc relativity hypothesis?

A

if the hypothesis was true, and language shaped their thoughts, it would be expected that the tribe would have difficulty perceiving/learning different shades. but since they performed just as well as others, it discounts the theory

253
Q

what does it mean to be checking for codability?

A

checking to see how much consensus there is on describing a stimulus

254
Q

english speakers have the highest ____ and _____ codability and the lowest _____ codability

A

highest vision and sound.. lowest smell

255
Q

thinking “red, orange and brown are all warm colours” is an example of what?

A

concept

256
Q

the mental representations that group/categorize shared features of related objects/events/stimuli is known as?

A

concepts

257
Q

what is a necessary condition?

A

something that MUST be true in order for it to belong in a category

258
Q

what is a sufficient condition?

A

something that IF it is true, it proves that it belongs to a category

259
Q

making judgements by comparing new instance with a prototype is conducive to which theory?

A

prototype theory: basing inclusion on the “best” or “most typical” member of a category

260
Q

what is the exemplar theory?

A

category judgements based on comparing new instances with memories of previous instances with a different category

261
Q

exemplars are classified faster when presented to the left visual field. which regions of the brain are activated?

A

prefrontal cortex (analysis/decision making), basal ganglia

262
Q

prototypes get classified quicker when presented in the right visual field. which regions of the brain are activated?

A

visual cortex (image processing)

263
Q

if someone is unable to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, but can still recognize objects outside the category, what is this known as?

A

category-specific deficit

264
Q

which region of the brain is used to identify humans?

A

left temporal lobe

265
Q

which region of the brain is used to identify animals?

A

lower left temporal lobe

266
Q

which region of the brain is used to retrieve tool names?

A

occipital and parietal lobe junction

267
Q

T or F: category-specific organization of visual regions depends on visual experience

A

false, congenitally blind people show similar category-preferential regions in the brain

268
Q

what is the rational choice theory?

A

decisions made by determining

269
Q

if you think to yourself “how likely is this to happen * judge valye of the outcome” i.e., 10% chance of gaining $500 (=50$) vs. 20% change of gaining $2000 (=200$), what theory are you displaying?

A

rational choice theory

270
Q

T or F: we are better at estimating frequency than probabilites

A

true

271
Q

what is the availability bias?

A

items more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently

272
Q

what is heuristics?

A

fast and efficient strategies that facilitate decision making but do not guarantee a solution… mental shortcut, not always accurate

273
Q

what is an algorithm?

A

well-defined sequence of procedures/rules that guarantees a solution to a problem

274
Q

explain the conjunction fallacy

A

people tend to think more information means its all true when in reality, the combined probability of two events happening together is always less likely than the two events occurring independently of one another

275
Q

explain representativeness heuristics

A

making a probability judgment (likelihood judgement) by comparing the object/event with a prototype

276
Q

explain framing effects

A

people will give different answers to the same question based on how the question is framed/asked

277
Q

explain the sunk cost fallacy?

A

people will make decisions about their situation based on what they have previously invested into the situation

278
Q

explain optimism bias

A

the belief that compared to others, you are more likely to experience positive events in the future

279
Q

connect JOL (judgement of learning) and optimism bias

A

too much optimism may prevent goal-oriented behaviour… too much optimism is associated with lower levels of academic achievement

280
Q

explain the 2 step process to prospect theory

A
  1. simplify available information (focus on one point of reference)
  2. choose prospect that is believed to offer the best value (often subjective)
281
Q

people being more willing to take risks to avoid losses than to achieve gains is known as?

A

prospect theory

282
Q

explain certainty effect

A

people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thing

283
Q

T or F: the prospect theory says that people are willing to take risks to avoid a loss

A

true

284
Q

damage to prefrontal lobe is associate to what type of decision making?

A

riskier decision making; insensitivity to future consequences of behaviour
- gambling
- substance-dependence
-binge-eating

285
Q

a problem that doesn’t have a clear goal or well-defined paths to a solution is which type of problem?

A

ill-defined

286
Q

a problem with clearly specified goals and clearly defined solutions is what type of problem?

A

well-defined problem

287
Q

describe analogical problem solving

A

solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution

288
Q

having a “aha” moment when thinking about a problem looks like?

A

-pattern of clues in the problem unconsciously activate relevant memories
-when sufficient information is activated, crosses threshold of awareness

289
Q

what happens with EEG data 1/3 second before coming up with a solution during your “aha” moment

A

high frequency EEG data: gamma activity

290
Q

what happens on an fMRI 1/3 second before coming up with a solution during your “aha” moment

A

increased activity in frontal lobe’s anterior cingulate (involved in controlling attention)

291
Q

explain functional fixedness

A

the tendency to perceive the functions of objects as unchanging… a vacuum is simply a vacuum, a book is simply a book

292
Q

what can push past functional fixedness? give an example

A

life hacks i.e., prop phone up with book. put spandex over vacuum to find jewellery in carpet

293
Q

the mental activity consisting of organizing information/beliefs into a series of steps to reach conclusions is known as?

A

reasoning

294
Q

the system of rules that specify which conclusions are true from a set of statements is known as?

A

logic

295
Q

T or F: reasoning is a tool we use for logic

A

false. logic is a tool we use for reasoning

296
Q

explain the belief bias

A

people are more likely to accept a conclusion based on how believable the conclusion is when compared to how logically valid an argument is

297
Q

explain the illusory truth effect

A

repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood that people will judge it to be true

298
Q

how do prototype theory and exemplar theory differ?

A

Prototype theory suggests that a new stimulus is compared to a single prototype in a category, while exemplar theory suggests that a new stimulus is compared to multiple known exemplars in a category.

psych 111 (2 decks)

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