Final Flashcards
1
Q
what would a retrieval cue for a wedding first dance be?
A
song, outfits, etc.
2
Q
putting yourself in the same environment as when the information was initially encoded is associated with which principle?
A
encoding specificity principle
3
Q
does the encoding specificity principle make retrieval cues stronger or weaker?
A
stronger
4
Q
remembering things in context with your emotion is associate with which type of retrieval?
A
state-dependent retrieval
5
Q
how is retrieval associated with memory?
A
recall = strengthens memories.
recalling information helps you perform much better i.e., testing self (instead of just reading textbooks) helps solidify memory better
6
Q
eyewitness testimony must be as complete as possible (and early as possible) to help avoid what?
A
retrieval-induced forgetting
7
Q
retrieval process occurs where in the brain?
A
left frontal lobe
8
Q
successful remembering is associated with which area of the brain?
A
hippocampus activity
9
Q
H.M. had a portion of his temporal lobes removed, including the hippocampus. What sort of memory problems did he have?
- could not remember old information before the surgery (retrograde amnesia)
- could not remember new information (after surgery) (anterograde amnesia)
- lost short-term memory
A
- could not remember new information (after surgery) (anterograde amnesia)
10
Q
if you successfully remember an event associated with a specific song, which parts of the brain will be involved?
A
hippocampus and auditory cortex (upper temporal lobe)
11
Q
what is explicit memory?
A
when people consciously/intentionally retrieve past experiences
12
Q
what is implicit memory?
A
when past experiences influence later behaviour/performance without an effort to remember
13
Q
Which is most likely a common example of implicit memory?
- building IKEA furniture
- going on a hike of a new trail
- brushing your teeth
- recalling your grocery list
A
- brushing your teeth
14
Q
what type of implicit memory is associated with the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice
A
procedural memory
15
Q
how do we know that procedural memory does not require hippocampus activity?
A
people with amnesia can acquire procedural memory (they have damaged hippocampus)
16
Q
what does reduced activity in the cortex compared to unprimed individuals say about priming?
A
individuals who were primed are better at recall
17
Q
implicit memory is more associated with which area in the brain?
A
motor cortex
18
Q
implicit memory or sensory features of a item is associated with which type of priming?
A
perceptual priming
19
Q
perceptual priming occurs in which area of the brain?
A
right hemisphere, visual cortex
20
Q
implicit memory for the meaning of a word or utility of an object (semantics) is associated with which type of priming?
A
conceptual priming
21
Q
conceptual priming occurs in which areas of the brain?
A
left hemisphere, frontal lobe
22
Q
which specific area of the brain explains why conceptual priming occurs where it does?
A
broca’s area
23
Q
HMs gradual improvement on a target tracking game (without consciously remembering playing) is associated with which type of memory?
A
implicit memory -> procedural memory
24
Q
facts and concepts (general knowledge) is associated with which type of explicit memory?
A
semantic memory
25
memories of personal experiences that occured in the past at a particular time and place is associated with which type of explicit memory?
episodic memory
26
smaller right hippocampus is associated with which type of memory deficiency?
severe deficient autobiographical memory
27
people who undergo episodic specificity training see improvements in what?
improves capability to imagine future scenarios
28
the lasting negative effect on later individual recall is associated with what?
collaborative inhibition
29
forgetting what occurs with the passage of time is associated with which of the seven "sins" of memory?
transience
30
the more you study, the less time it takes to re-learn a list is associated with which of the seven "sins" of memory?
transience
31
which type of transience is when later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier?
retroactive interference
32
which type of transience is when earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later?
proactive interference
33
a lapse in attention that results in memory failure is associated with which of the seven "sins" of memory?
absentmindedness
34
remembering to do things in the future is associated with what type of absentmindedness?
prospective memory
35
the failure to retrieve information despite trying to produce it is associated with which of the seven "sins" of memory?
blocking
36
assigning a recollection of an idea to the wrong source is associated with which of the seven "sins" of memory?
memory misattribution
37
the way you're asked something can affect the way you answer is associated with which of the seven "sins" of memory?
suggestibility
38
the tendency to exaggerate change between present and past in which type of bias
egocentric bias
39
the intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget is associated with which of the seven "sins" of memory?
persistence
40
which part of the brain is activated during persistence
amygdala
41
bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored is known as?
retrieval
42
external information that helps bring store information to mind is known as?
retrieval cue
43
negative spirals are associated with which type of retrieval
state-dependent retrieval
44
retrieving an item from long-term memory becomes impaired by the recall of related items (but not those specific items) due to what?
retrieval-induced forgetting
45
the idea that information omitted during initial recall is unlikely to be recalled again in the future, is associated with which type of forgetting?
retrieval-induced forgetting
46
general knowledge is associated with which type on long-term memory?
semantic memory
47
autobiographical knowledge is associated with which type of long-term memory?
episodic memory
48
hippocampal damage at birth may lead to what?
absentmindedness and disorientation
49
what is hippocampal amnesia?
difficulty imagining new experiences
50
how is hippocampal amnesia linked to memory?
to be able to imagine the future, you must be able to recombine elements of past experiences
51
what is alternate uses task (AUT)?
participants asked to generate unusual uses of common objects
52
what is a large amount of AUTs generated associated with?
linked with creativity which is associated with the capability to recall past events
53
AUT shows activity in which parts of the brain?
brain network supported episodic memory/future imagining and hippocampus
54
what's an explanation for collaborative inhibition?
individual retrieval strategies disrupt others ; someone else speaking about their own retrieval strategy interrupts other's processes .. they will remember what they said while forgetting other things
55
what is the collaborative remembering seen in close relationships known as?
transitive memory
56
absentmindedness occurs due to what?
lack of attention (which is required for encoding)
57
lack of attention, resulting in absentmindedness, is due to which areas of the brain being less asctivated?
1. left frontal region during encoding -> less semantic encoding
2. less hippocampal activity -> less encoding (episodic)
58
keeping a google calendar is an example of what?
intention offloading
59
blocking is common with names because of what?
less semantic memory processing
60
blocking can be due to damages to which part of the brain?
left temporal lobe, as a result of a stroke
61
the primary cause of eyewitness misidentification is associated which which of the seven "sins" of memory?
memory misattribution
62
eyewitness misidentification can be due to a distraction at the time of the event which is associated with what?
distraction at time of encoding
63
eyewitness misidentification can be due to a lapse of time which is associated with what?
memory misattribution due to transience
64
the recall of when, where, and how information was acquired is known as?
source memory
65
déja vu and misattribution during eyewitness testimony is associated with what?
source memory
66
memory misattribution is more likely to occur after damage to which part of the brain?
frontal lobe
67
the feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before, such as falsely identifying a random person's face as a celebrity, is known as?
false recognition
68
the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections is known as?
suggestibility
69
distorting influences on present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences is known as?
bias
70
the bias to reconstruct the past in a way that in consistent with the present is known as?
consistency bias
71
being more likely to recall past political stances as similar to current ones is an example of which type of bias?
consistency bias
72
the tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel now versus the past is associated with which type of bias?
change bias
73
couples rating their love as growing even though their ratings do not show it, is an example of which type of bias?
change bias
74
the detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events is known as?
flashbulb memories
75
flashbulb memories are due to?
emotional arousal creates stronger memories as well as the tendency to talk more about shocking events which is a form of recall -> strengthens memory
76
how does damage to the amygdala effect a person's memory of events?
simply do not remember emotional memories more often than non-emotional memories
77
how does the amygdala enhance memory for emotional experiences?
amygdala releases stress hormones which signals the CNS which then enhances memory for emotional experiences
78
which hormones are released by the amygdala during emotional experiences?
adrenaline and cortisol
79
storing new information by converting it into mental pictures is known as?
visual imagery encoding
80
which type of judgement, case, visual or semantic, has the best performance on recall tests?
semantic judgement
81
if a participant was asked to think about the appearance of a word i.e., is HAT written in uppercase or lowercase, which type of judgement would that be?
case judgement
82
if a participant was asked to think about the sound of a word i.e., does hat rhyme with clothing, which type of judgement would that be?
rhyme judgement
83
if a participant was asked to think about the meaning of a word i.e., is hat a type of clothing, which type of judgement would that be?
semantic judgement
84
semantic encoding occurs in which regions of the brain?
lower left frontal lobe and inner left temporal
85
the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory is known as?
semantic encoding
86
how are memories constructed?
memories are made by combining already known information with new information from the senses
87
the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored is known as?
retrieval
88
the process of maintaining information in memory over time is known as?
storage
89
the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory is known as?
encoding
90
the ability to store and retrieve information over time is known as?
memory
91
HSAM stands for what?
highly superior autobiographical memory
92
when are pleasure centres activated?
during the expectation/craving stage
93
what is latent learning?
when something is learned but not seen as a behavioural change until later
94
what is shaping?
learning as a result of reinforcement of successive steps to final desired behaviour
95
A: What kind of correlation does a continuous reinforcement schedule have? ....................................And B: what kind of correlation does an intermittent reinforcement schedule have?
1) A: r<1, B: r<1
2) A: r=1, B: r<1
3) A: r = 1, B: r=1
4) A: r<1, B: r=1
2) A: r=1, B: r<1
96
what is the intermittent reinforcement effect?
more resistant to extinction
97
what is intermittent reinforcement?
only some responses are followed by reinforcement
98
do FR or VR schedules have higher rates of response?
VR
99
what type of reinforcement are slot machines examples of?
VR schedule
100
what is variable-ratio (VR) schedule?
reinforcement based on average number of responses
101
which type of FR schedule is when reinforcement occurs after each response?
continuous reinforcement
102
10th free coffee free at starbucks is which type of schedule of reinforcement?
fixed-ratio schedule
103
which type of schedule leads to consistent responses since the next reinforcement time is less predictable?
variable-interval (VI) schedule
104
what is fixed-ratio (FR) schedule?
reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made
105
what is a variable-interval (VI) schedule?
correct behaviour is reinforced on same average time since last reinforcement
106
what enabled the learning of pigeons when they learnt to discriminate against impressionist art?
operant conditioning
107
how is driving through an intersection a behaviour that is under stimulus control?
red light -> stop: reward: don't get into car crash
green light -> go through: don't get into car crash
discriminative stimulus: which colour lights
108
behaviours are under which type of control?
stimulus control
109
T or F: more time between behaviour and reinforcer leads to a more effective reinforcer
false, more time between behaviour and reinforcer lead to a less effective reinforcer
110
which type of reinforcers are effective because of classical conditioning associations with the other type of reinforcer?
secondary reinforcer
111
money, verbal approvals and trophies are examples of which type of reinforcer?
secondary reinforcer
112
which type of reinforcer help satisfy biological needs or desires?
primary reinforcer
113
food and shelter are examples of which type of reinforcer?
primary reinforcer
114
why is reinforcement generally more effective than punishment?
punishment does not specify correct behaviours
115
parents reduce restrictions on where teen can drive as a reward for safe driving
a) positive reinforcement
b) positive punishment
c) negative reinforcement
d) negative punishment
c) negative reinforcement
116
Parents suspend driving privileges after teen is stopped for speeding.
a) positive reinforcement
b) positive punishment
c) negative reinforcement
d) negative punishment
d) negative punishment
117
Parents buy teen a new car as a reward for safe driving.
a) positive reinforcement
b) positive punishment
c) negative reinforcement
d) negative punishment
a) positive reinforcement
118
what determines if a stimulus is a reinforcer or punishment?
the way the stimulus is delivered
119
what is punishment?
stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it
120
what is a reinforcer?
stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it
121
operant behaviours produce which type of response?
environmental
122
what is operant behaviour?
behaviour that an organism performs that impacts the environment
123
Would behavourists have liked Thorndike's puzzle box experiments?
yes since its observable behaviour
124
what is the law of effect?
satisfying behaviours tend to be repeated; unsatisfying behaviours are less likely to be repeated
125
what behaviour was required of the cats in Edward Thorndike's puzzle experiment?
instrumental behaviour
126
what is instrumental behaviour?
behaviour that requires an organisms to DO something; manipulate the environment
127
why is visual imagery encoding similar to semantic encoding?
requires the visual images to be related to what is already in the memory
128
if you use visual imagery to encode verbal information, how many mental cues are you making?
two
129
which region of the brain does visual imagery encoding activate
occipital lobe
130
which type of encoding is the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items?
organizational encoding
131
organizing items into a hierarchy is an example of which type of encoding?
organizational encoding
132
why can we remember survival-related information so well?
encourages thinking of goals, engages in planning (which increases recall), combines elements of semantic, visual and organizational encoding
133
storage that holds information for a few seconds or less is known as?
sensory memory
134
the fast-decaying store of visual information, ~1second, is known as?
iconic memory
135
the fast-decaying store of auditory information, ~5seconds, is known as?
echoic memory
136
memory that holds non sensory information for more than a few seconds, but less than a minute, is known as?
short-term memory
137
the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it is known as?
rehearsal
138
the effect that indicates that the first few, and last few, items are more likely to be recalled than items in the middle is known as?
serial position effect
139
the primacy effect states that if you have more opportunity to rehearse the first items in a list, those items more likely get encoded where?
long-term memory
140
T or F: the primacy effect and recency effect both result in either the first (primacy) or last (recency) items being more likely to get encoded into long-term memory.
False. while the primacy effect results in the increased likelihood of items being encoded into long-term memory, the rehearsal of the last items does not due to the recency effect.
141
how many meaningful items can be held in short-term memory at once?
about 7
142
you can increase short-term memory by using which method?
chunking
143
what is chunking? which encoding does it utilize?
chunking is the combining of small pieces of information into larger chunks resulting in them being more easily held in short-term memory. organizational encoding.
144
the active maintenance of information in short-term storage is known as?
working memory
145
what are the 2 subsystems for information manipulation and storage?
visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop
146
damage to the phonological loop results in which sorts of diffuculty?
holding onto strings of digits, letters, and learning new words
147
which subsystems of the working memory, visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop, are used for visual images and verbal information?
phonological loop: verbal information
visuospatial sketchpad: visual images
148
the episodic buffer does what?
integrates visual and verbal information from subsystems into a combined code
149
which part of the working memory is the gateway to long-term memory?
episodic buffer
150
the central executive does what?
coordinates subsystems and episodic buffer
151
the central executive activates which region of the brain?
frontal lobe
152
does the episodic buffer or central executive control the flow of information through the system?
central executive
153
information held for hours, days, weeks and years is known as?
long-term memory
154
the hippocampus is responsible for putting information into which type of store? long-term or short-term?
long-term store
155
anterograde amnesia is what?
the inability to transfer new information from short-term store into long-term store
156
retrograde amnesia is what?
the inability to retrieve information acquired before a certain date (injury, surgery)
157
why is the hippocampus critical during memory formation?
- indexes sensations in cortex to experience a single memory
- gives a highly detailed memory of personal experience
158
T or F: after encoding, memories are set
false. memories are fragile after encoding
159
what is consolidation?
the process by which memories become stable in the brain
160
recalling memories that results in the disruption of the original memory is known as?
reconsolidation
161
does creating a memory involve changes in the short-term or long-term storage?
both short-term and long-term
162
an example of changes in the synapse when creating short-term memory is?
more neurotransmitter release
163
an example of changes in the synapse when creating long-term memory is?
growth of new synapses
164
long-term potentiation is what?
the communication across synapses between neurons that strengthens their connection making further communication easier
165
when LTP is blocked by drugs, how will animal's ability to complete tasks be inhibited?
they will have trouble with tasks like mazes
166
what is the term for an organism learning by watching other's actions
observational learning
167
if person A learns a behaviour from person B, and then person C learns the behaviour from person A, what is this called?
diffusion chain
168
T or F: observational learning is unique to humans
False
169
T or F: the enculturation hypothesis states that raisin chimpanzees in human culture INCREASES chimpanzees observational learning capacity
true, more likely to use tool efficiently (to human's standards)
170
what "third variables" could there be fore human-reared chumps' superior observational learning?
chimpanzees raised in human environments are more likely to have already encountered that specific tool than chimps in nature
171
what fires in the brain when an animals perform an action or when they watch someone else perform the action
mirror neurons
172
T or F: mental practice of physical activity engages similar brain regions
true
173
T or F: implicit learning is the same as latent learning
false, latent learning is when something is learnt but performance of behaviour isn't seen till later on while implicit learning is learning without awareness
174
habituation and repeated exposures reducing responses are examples of which type of learning?
implicit
175
texting is an example of what type of learning
implicit
176
knowing how to do something but not being able to explicitly describe the rules or "just knowing", is common when you learn something which way?
implicitly
177
individuals performing the serial reaction time task would see activity in which region of the brain in an fMRI scan?
motor cortex
178
T or F: implicit learning is related to IQ
false
179
is implicit or explicit learning more affected by agin/amnesia?
explicit learning is more affected
180
participants not given specific instructions when looking at a bunch of dots, and then later asked to determine if the dot fits a specific pattern, show activity in which area of the brain?
implicit learning: increased occipital region activity
181
participants given specific instructions to look for a pattern in dots when looking at a bunch of dots, and then later asked to determine if the dot fits a specific pattern, show activity in which area of the brain?
explicit learning: increased activity in left temporal lobe, right frontal lobe, parietal lobe
182
highlighting, rereading, summarizing, visual imagery mnemonics are examples of which type of studying?
low utility
183
distributed practice, interleaved practice, practice testing are examples of which type of studying?
high utility
184
cramming is an example of which type of practice
massed practice
185
study activities spread out with time between repetitions is which type of practice?
distributed practice
186
T or F: more difficult retrieval equates to desirable difficulties
true
187
mixing up the kinds of things you're studying during a practice, is which type of practice?
interleaved practice
188
doing the same kinds of questions/material in a session is an example of which type of practice?
blocked practice
189
individual's own ideas of their own performance/learning is known as?
judgements of learning (JOLs)
190
T or F: study sessions typically end when a JOL question's answer is yes
true true true ... which is bad ... bc JOLs can be inaccurate: easily convince self that material is known well enough
191
perceptual priming/implicit memory are examples or low/high level processes?
low
192
T or F: deeper learning promotes testing success
true
193
T or F: practice testing has no correlation to performance on exams
false
194
T or F: building desirable difficulties is a way to ensure good studying
true
195
how experiences shape relatively permanent changes in someones state is known as?
learning
196
changes to a nervous system because of experiences resulting in changes in behaviour is known as?
learning
197
decreased GWR (gill withdrawal reflex) in aplysia due to continued gentle touch is known as?
habituation
198
when a stimulus produces increased responses to later stimuli i.e., initial electric shock = strong GWR and then subsequent light touches = strong GWR, is known as?
sensitization
199
when a previously neutral stimulus produces a response after pairing with a stimulus that naturally produces a response (forming associations), this is known as?
classical conditioning
200
food is an example of what type of stimulus?
unconditioned stimulus (US) : stimulus that naturally produces a response
201
salivation is an example of which type of response?
unconditioned response (UR): response after perceiving US
202
giving a previously meaningless stimulus meaning is the goal of what?
classical conditioning
203
Pavlovs neutral simulus (NS) was?
tones
204
in CC, after the conditioning/acquisition phase, the NS should becomes a CS. what does this mean?
a neutral stimulus should become a conditioned stimulus (produces a response) after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (US)
205
if a dog salivates after perceiving a tone (CS), this is an example of what?
- unconditioned response
- conditioned response
conditioned response, although it can look similar to the UR
206
what is second-order conditioning?
creating a new conditioned stimulus by pairing it with a different (already) conditioned stimulus instead of an unconditioned stimulus
207
the recovery of learned behaviour from extinction after a period of rest is known as?
spontaneous recovery
208
if a slightly different CS is used (compared to the CS used during acquisition) but the CR is still observed, this is known as?
generalization
209
if there is an awareness that two stimuli are not the same this is known as?
discrimination
210
what does the Rescorla-Wagner model tell us?
conditioned stimuli teach animals to set up expectations
211
T or F: the Rescorla-Wagner model supports behaviourism
false, it indicated a cognitive component to CC since the CS leads to an expectation of food which results in the CR of salivation, but also other responses like tail wagging, looking for food, begging, etc.
212
will a familiar or unfamiliar stimulus make a better CS?
unfamiliar since it shouldn't be associated with as many expectations
213
which area of the brain is associated with the conditioning of motor skills?
cerenellum
214
which area of the brain is associated with fear conditioning?
amygdala (midbrain increased heart rate), autonomic nervous system activity, hypothalamus (stress hormone regulation)
215
the mental action of acquiring knowledge through thought, experience, and the senses is known as?
cognition
216
the system for communicating with others using signals combined according to rules of grammar that convey meaning is known as?
language
217
the set of rules that specify how units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages is known as?
grammar
218
what are recognizable as speech?
phonemes
219
what set of rules that is learnt without instruction, is common to every language and has to do with how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds?
phonological rules
220
T or F: phonemes are the smallest meaningful units of language?
false. phonemes are the smallest units of sounds. morphemes are the smallest units of language but they're made up of phonemes!
221
what rule describes how morphemes can be combined to form rules?
morphological rules
222
the order of basic to complex in language is?
a) morphemes; phonemes; words; phrases; sentence
b) morphemes; phonemes; words; sentence; phrases
c) phonemes; morphemes; words; sentence; phrases
d) phonemes; morphemes; words; phrases; sentence
d) phonemes; morphemes; words; phrases; sentence
223
morphemes that contain things and events are known as?
content morphemes
224
morphemes that permit expression of abstract ideas are known as?
function morphemes
225
and, or, but, when: are all examples of which type of morpheme?
function morpheme
226
prefixes/suffixes e.g., -s for plural or un- for reversal are examples of what?
function morphemes
227
what are syntactic rules?
how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences
228
at 12 months, roughly how many words should someone know?
~ 10
229
at 5 years, roughly how many words should someone know?
~ 10,000
230
the ability infants hold to distinguish between all human language sounds is lost within how many months?
6 months
231
at 4-6 months, what speech production in expected?
babble
232
T or F: there is a standard sequence across languages for leaning.. d and t appear before m and n
true
233
T or F: toddlers generally learn verbs before nouns
false. they generally learn nouns before verbs
234
what is fast mapping?
children map a word onto an undying concept after only a single exposure
235
at ~24 months, what sort of speech is expected?
telegraphic speech, short sentences with only content words.. lacking function morphemes. ex: more milk, throw ball
236
why do 4-5 year olds tend to use incorrect forms of grammar when 2-3 year olds use correct forms?
4-5 year olds are unlikely mimicking.. they're creating. they will over regularize a rule, like adding "ed" for past tense.. so 2-3 year old will say "I ran"" whereas 4-5 year old will say "I ranned"
237
what is the linguistic milestone sequence? at 12 months, 24 months and 3 years?
12 months: one-word speech
24 months: telegraphic speech
3 years: simple sentences with function morphemes
238
what does nativist theory argue in terms of language?
language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity
239
why is nativism accepted over behaviourism?
- infants can distinguish between phonemes they've never heard
- deaf infants babble
240
explain how language has a critical period?
-difficult to learn after puberty
- proficiency of english by immigrants is related to their age of immigration, not their length of time speaking the language
241
explain how the fMRI of Chinese adoptees with french parents (who dont remember speaking their native language) proves language has a lasting impact
their fMRIs were more similar to Chinese speakers than to french teens who were never exposed to Chinese
242
parents tailoring verbal interactions with children to simplify language learning is an example of what?
interactionist approach
243
what are the language centres in the brain?
Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the right hemisphere
244
what/where is Broca's area?
language production of patterns in vocal and sign languages. left frontal cortex
245
what/where is Wernicke's area?
language comprehension (spoken or signed). left temporal cortex
246
how are Broca's area and Wernicke's area connected?
accurate fasciculus
247
damage to language centres is known as? and results in?
aphasia: difficulty in producing or comprehending language
248
why is the right hemisphere a language centre?
capacity for processing meaning
249
damage to the right hemisphere does what, in terms of language?
subtle problems with language comprehension
250
name one way language learning differs in apes
1. primarily signs names for concrete objects/simple actions: limited conceptual repertoire
2. limited understanding of grammar
3. limited vocabularies: 100s of words vs 10,000 in humans by ~ 4
251
what is the linguistic relativity hypothesis?
language shapes the nature of thought.. instead of language helping us express though, this argues that language actually shapes thought
252
how does an isolated tribe being able to sort colour shades, when all they've known are the terms dark and light for colour, either support or discredit the linguisitc relativity hypothesis?
if the hypothesis was true, and language shaped their thoughts, it would be expected that the tribe would have difficulty perceiving/learning different shades. but since they performed just as well as others, it discounts the theory
253
what does it mean to be checking for codability?
checking to see how much consensus there is on describing a stimulus
254
english speakers have the highest ____ and _____ codability and the lowest _____ codability
highest vision and sound.. lowest smell
255
thinking "red, orange and brown are all warm colours" is an example of what?
concept
256
the mental representations that group/categorize shared features of related objects/events/stimuli is known as?
concepts
257
what is a necessary condition?
something that MUST be true in order for it to belong in a category
258
what is a sufficient condition?
something that IF it is true, it proves that it belongs to a category
259
making judgements by comparing new instance with a prototype is conducive to which theory?
prototype theory: basing inclusion on the "best" or "most typical" member of a category
260
what is the exemplar theory?
category judgements based on comparing new instances with memories of previous instances with a different category
261
exemplars are classified faster when presented to the left visual field. which regions of the brain are activated?
prefrontal cortex (analysis/decision making), basal ganglia
262
prototypes get classified quicker when presented in the right visual field. which regions of the brain are activated?
visual cortex (image processing)
263
if someone is unable to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, but can still recognize objects outside the category, what is this known as?
category-specific deficit
264
which region of the brain is used to identify humans?
left temporal lobe
265
which region of the brain is used to identify animals?
lower left temporal lobe
266
which region of the brain is used to retrieve tool names?
occipital and parietal lobe junction
267
T or F: category-specific organization of visual regions depends on visual experience
false, congenitally blind people show similar category-preferential regions in the brain
268
what is the rational choice theory?
decisions made by determining
269
if you think to yourself "how likely is this to happen * judge valye of the outcome" i.e., 10% chance of gaining $500 (=50$) vs. 20% change of gaining $2000 (=200$), what theory are you displaying?
rational choice theory
270
T or F: we are better at estimating frequency than probabilites
true
271
what is the availability bias?
items more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently
272
what is heuristics?
fast and efficient strategies that facilitate decision making but do not guarantee a solution... mental shortcut, not always accurate
273
what is an algorithm?
well-defined sequence of procedures/rules that guarantees a solution to a problem
274
explain the conjunction fallacy
people tend to think more information means its all true when in reality, the combined probability of two events happening together is always less likely than the two events occurring independently of one another
275
explain representativeness heuristics
making a probability judgment (likelihood judgement) by comparing the object/event with a prototype
276
explain framing effects
people will give different answers to the same question based on how the question is framed/asked
277
explain the sunk cost fallacy?
people will make decisions about their situation based on what they have previously invested into the situation
278
explain optimism bias
the belief that compared to others, you are more likely to experience positive events in the future
279
connect JOL (judgement of learning) and optimism bias
too much optimism may prevent goal-oriented behaviour... too much optimism is associated with lower levels of academic achievement
280
explain the 2 step process to prospect theory
1. simplify available information (focus on one point of reference)
2. choose prospect that is believed to offer the best value (often subjective)
281
people being more willing to take risks to avoid losses than to achieve gains is known as?
prospect theory
282
explain certainty effect
people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thing
283
T or F: the prospect theory says that people are willing to take risks to avoid a loss
true
284
damage to prefrontal lobe is associate to what type of decision making?
riskier decision making; insensitivity to future consequences of behaviour
- gambling
- substance-dependence
-binge-eating
285
a problem that doesn't have a clear goal or well-defined paths to a solution is which type of problem?
ill-defined
286
a problem with clearly specified goals and clearly defined solutions is what type of problem?
well-defined problem
287
describe analogical problem solving
solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution
288
having a "aha" moment when thinking about a problem looks like?
-pattern of clues in the problem unconsciously activate relevant memories
-when sufficient information is activated, crosses threshold of awareness
289
what happens with EEG data 1/3 second before coming up with a solution during your "aha" moment
high frequency EEG data: gamma activity
290
what happens on an fMRI 1/3 second before coming up with a solution during your "aha" moment
increased activity in frontal lobe's anterior cingulate (involved in controlling attention)
291
explain functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive the functions of objects as unchanging... a vacuum is simply a vacuum, a book is simply a book
292
what can push past functional fixedness? give an example
life hacks i.e., prop phone up with book. put spandex over vacuum to find jewellery in carpet
293
the mental activity consisting of organizing information/beliefs into a series of steps to reach conclusions is known as?
reasoning
294
the system of rules that specify which conclusions are true from a set of statements is known as?
logic
295
T or F: reasoning is a tool we use for logic
false. logic is a tool we use for reasoning
296
explain the belief bias
people are more likely to accept a conclusion based on how believable the conclusion is when compared to how logically valid an argument is
297
explain the illusory truth effect
repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood that people will judge it to be true
298
how do prototype theory and exemplar theory differ?
Prototype theory suggests that a new stimulus is compared to a single prototype in a category, while exemplar theory suggests that a new stimulus is compared to multiple known exemplars in a category.
