FINAL (13-18) Flashcards
Equity theory ok
a theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly
Expectancy ok
the perceived relationship between effort and performance
Expectancy theory ok
the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards
Extinction ok
reinforcement in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior, thus weakening the behavior
Extrinsic rewards cs
a reward that is tangible, visible to others, and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors
Goal acceptance cs
the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals
Goal difficulty cs
the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish
Goal specificity cs
the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous
Goal-setting theory cs
the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement
Inputs
in equity theory, the contributions employees make to the organization
Instrumentality cs
the perceived relationship between performance and rewards
Intrinsic rewards cs
a natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake
Motivation
the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal
Needs
the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being
Negative reinforcement cs
reinforcement that strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior
Outcomes
in equity theory, the rewards employees receive for their contributions to the organization
Performance feedback cs
information about the quality or quantity of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal
Positive reinforcement
reinforcement that strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences
Reinforcement contingencies cs
cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences
Reinforcement theory cs
the theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently
Underreward
a form of inequity in which you are getting fewer outcomes relative to inputs than your referent is getting
Valence cs
the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome
continuous reinforcement schedules cs
a schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of a behavior
distributive justice cs
the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated
fixed interval reinforcement schedules cs
an intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed
fixed ratio reinforcement schedules cs
an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors
goal
a target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish
intermittent reinforcement schedules cs
a schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred
outcome/input (O/I) ratio cs
in equity theory, an employee’s perception of how the rewards received from an organization compare with the employee’s contributions to that organization
overreward
a form of inequity in which you are getting more outcomes relative to inputs than your referent
procedural justice cs
the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions
punishment
reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences
referents cs
in equity theory, others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly
reinforcement
the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior
schedule of reinforcement cs
rules that specify which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered
variable interval reinforcement schedules cs
an intermittent schedule in which the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average
variable ratio reinforcement schedules cs
an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors
Achievement-oriented leadership cs
a leadership style in which the leader sets challenging goals, has high expectations of employees, and displays confidence that employees will assume responsibility and put forth extraordinary effort
Consideration
the extent to which a leader is friendly, approachable, and supportive and shows concern for employees
Directive leadership cs
a leadership style in which the leader lets employees know precisely what is expected of them, gives them specific guidelines for performing tasks, schedules work, sets standards of performance, and makes sure that people follow standard rules and regulations
Ethical charismatics cs
charismatic leaders who provide developmental opportunities for followers, are open to positive and negative feedback, recognize others’ contributions, share information, and have moral standards that emphasize the larger interests of the group, organization, or society
Initiating structure cs
the degree to which a leader structures the roles of followers by setting goals, giving directions, setting deadlines, and assigning tasks
Participative leadership
a leadership style in which the leader consults employees for their suggestions and input before making decisions
Position power
the degree to which leaders are able to hire, fire, reward, and punish workers
Strategic leadership cs
the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a positive future for an organization
Supportive leadership
a leadership style in which the leader is friendly and approachable to employees, shows concern for employees and their welfare, treats them as equals, and creates a friendly climate
Task structure cs
the degree to which the requirements of a subordinate’s tasks are clearly specified
Trait theory cs
a leadership theory that holds that effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics
Traits
relatively stable characteristics, such as abilities, psychological motives, or consistent patterns of behavior
charismatic leadership cs
the behavioral tendencies and personal characteristics of leaders that create an exceptionally strong relationship between them and their followers
contingency theory cs
a leadership theory states that to maximize work group performance, leaders must be matched to the situation that best fits their leadership style
leader-member relations cs
the degree to which followers respect, trust, and like their leaders
leadership
the process of influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals
leadership style
the way a leader generally behaves toward followers
normative decision theory cs
a theory that suggests how leaders can determine an appropriate amount of employee participation when making decisions
path-goal theory cs
a leadership theory that states that leaders can increase subordinate satisfaction and performance by clarifying and clearing the paths to goals and by increasing the number and kinds of rewards available for goal attainment
situational favorableness cs
the degree to which a particular situation either permits or denies a leader the chance to influence the behavior of group members
transactional leadership cs
leadership based on an exchange process in which followers are rewarded for good performance and punished for poor performance
transformational leadership cs
leadership that generates awareness and acceptance of a group’s purpose and mission and gets employees to see beyond their own needs and self-interests for the good of the group
unethical charismatics cs
charismatic leaders who control and manipulate followers, do what is best for themselves instead of their organizations, want to hear only positive feedback, share only information that is beneficial to themselves, and have moral standards that put their interests before everyone else’s
visionary leadership
leadership that creates a positive image of the future that motivates organizational members and provides direction for future planning and goal setting
Active listening
assuming half the responsibility for successful communication by actively giving the speaker nonjudgmental feedback that shows you’ve accurately heard what he or she said
Attribution theory cs
the theory that we all have a basic need to understand and explain the causes of other people’s behavior
Coaching
communicating with someone for the direct purpose of improving the person’s on-the-job performance or behavior
Communication
the process of transmitting information from one person or place to another
Company hotlines
phone numbers that anyone in the company can call anonymously to leave information for upper management
Decoding
the process by which the receiver translates the written, verbal, or symbolic form of a message into an understood message
Destructive feedback cs
feedback that disapproves without any intention of being helpful and almost always causes a negative or defensive reaction in the recipient
Downward communication cs
communication that flows from higher to lower levels in an organization
Empathetic listening cs
understanding the speaker’s perspective and personal frame of reference and giving feedback that conveys that understanding to the speaker
Encoding
putting a message into a written, verbal, or symbolic form that can be recognized and understood by the receiver
Feedback to sender cs
in the communication process, a return message to the sender that indicates the receiver’s understanding of the message
Horizontal communication cs
communication that flows among managers and workers who are at the same organizational level
Jargon cs
vocabulary particular to a profession or group that interferes with communication in the workplace
Kinesics
movements of the body and face
Noise
anything that interferes with the transmission of the intended message
Nonverbal communication
any communication that doesn’t involve words
Online discussion forums
the in-house equivalent of Internet newsgroups. By using web- or software-based discussion tools that are available across the company, employees can easily ask questions and share knowledge with each other
Paralanguage cs
the pitch, rate, tone, volume, and speaking pattern (that is, use of silences, pauses, or hesitations) of one’s voice
Selective perception cs
the tendency to notice and accept objects and information consistent with our values, beliefs, and expectations, while ignoring or screening out inconsistent information
Survey feedback
information that is collected by surveys from organizational members and then compiled, disseminated, and used to develop action plans for improvement
Televised/videotaped speeches and meetings
speeches and meetings originally made to a smaller audience that are either simultaneously broadcast to other locations in the company or videotaped for subsequent distribution and viewing
Upward communication cs
communication that flows from lower to higher levels in an organization
blog
a personal website that provides personal opinions or recommendations, news summaries, and reader comments
closure
the tendency to fill in gaps of missing information by assuming that what we don’t know is consistent with what we already know
communication medium
the method used to deliver an oral or written message
constructive feedback
feedback intended to be helpful, corrective, and/or encouraging
counseling
communicating with someone about non-job-related issues that may be affecting or interfering with the person’s performance
defensive bias cs
the tendency for people to perceive themselves as personally and situationally similar to someone who is having difficulty or trouble
formal communication channel cs
the system of official channels that carry organizationally approved messages and information
fundamental attribution error cs
the tendency to ignore external causes of behavior and to attribute other people’s actions to internal causes
hearing
the act or process of perceiving sounds
informal communication channel cs
the transmission of messages from employee to employee outside of formal communication channels
listening
making a conscious effort to hear
organizational silence cs
when employees withhold information about organizational problems or issues
perception
the process by which individuals attend to, organize, interpret, and retain information from their environments
perceptual filters cs
the personality-, psychology-, or experience-based differences that influence people to ignore or pay attention to particular stimuli
self-serving bias cs
the tendency to overestimate our value by attributing successes to ourselves (internal causes) and attributing failures to others or the environment (external causes)
Balance sheets
accounting statements that provide a snapshot of a company’s financial position at a particular time
Behavior control
the regulation of the behaviors and actions that workers perform on the job
Benchmarking
the process of identifying outstanding practices, processes, and standards in other companies and adapting them to your company
Bureaucratic control cs
the use of hierarchical authority to influence employee behavior by rewarding or punishing employees for compliance or noncompliance with organizational policies, rules, and procedures
Cash flow analysis cs
a type of analysis that predicts how changes in a business will affect its ability to take in more cash than it pays out
Concurrent control cs
a mechanism for gathering information about performance deficiencies as they occur, thereby eliminating or shortening the delay between performance and feedback
Control
a regulatory process of establishing standards to achieve organizational goals, comparing actual performance against the standards, and taking corrective action when necessary
Cybernetic cs
the process of steering or keeping on course
Feedback control cs
a mechanism for gathering information about performance deficiencies after they occur
Feedforward control cs
a mechanism for monitoring performance inputs rather than outputs to prevent or minimize performance deficiencies before they occur
Financial ratios cs
calculations typically used to track a business’s liquidity (cash), efficiency, and profitability over time compared to other businesses in its industry
Income statements cs
accounting statements, also called “profit and loss statements,” that show what has happened to an organization’s income, expenses, and net profit over a period of time
Self-control cs
a control system in which managers and workers control their own behavior by setting their own goals, monitoring their own progress, and rewarding themselves for goal achievement
Standards cs
a basis of comparison for measuring the extent to which various kinds of organizational performance are satisfactory or unsatisfactory
Value
customer perception that the product quality is excellent for the price offered
balanced scorecard cs
measurement of organizational performance in four equally important areas: finances, customers, internal operations, and innovation and learning
budgets
quantitative plans through which managers decide how to allocate available money to best accomplish company goals
concertive controls cs
the regulation of workers’ behavior and decisions through work group values and beliefs
control loss cs
the situation in which behavior and work procedures do not conform to standards
customer defections cs
a performance assessment in which companies identify which customers are leaving and measure the rate at which they are leaving
cybernetic feasibility cs
the extent to which it is possible to implement each step in the control process
economic value added (EVA) cs
the amount by which company profits (revenues minus expenses minus taxes) exceed the cost of capital in a given year
normative controls cs
the regulation of workers’ behavior and decisions through widely shared organizational values and beliefs
objective control cs
the use of observable measures of worker behavior or outputs to assess performance and influence behavior
output control cs
the regulation of workers’ results or outputs through rewards and incentives
regulation costs cs
the costs associated with implementing or maintaining control
suboptimization cs
performance improvement in one part of an organization but only at the expense of decreased performance in another part
zero-based budgeting cs
a budgeting technique that requires managers to justify every expenditure every year
Acquisition cost cs
the cost of obtaining data that you don’t have
Association or affinity patterns cs
when two or more database elements tend to occur together in a significant way
Bar codes
a visual pattern that represents numerical data by varying the thickness and pattern of vertical bars
Communication cost cs
the cost of transmitting information from one place to another
Data clusters cs
when three or more database elements occur together (that is, cluster) in a significant way
Data encryption cs
the transformation of data into complex, scrambled digital codes that can be decrypted only by authorized users who possess unique decryption keys
Data mining cs
the process of discovering unknown patterns and relationships in large amounts of data
Electronic scanners
an electronic device that converts printed text and pictures into digital images
Expert systems
an information system that contains the specialized knowledge and decision rules used by experts and experienced decision makers so that nonexperts can draw on this knowledge base to make decisions
First-mover advantage
the strategic advantage that companies earn by being the first to use new information technology to substantially lower costs or to make a product or service different from that of competitors
Intranets
private company networks that allow employees to easily access, share, and publish information using Internet software
Knowledge
the understanding that one gains from information
Moore’s law cs
the prediction that about every two years, computer processing power would double and its cost would drop by 50 percent
Processing cost cs
the cost of turning raw data into usable information
Processing information cs
transforming raw data into meaningful information
Protecting information cs
the process of ensuring that data are reliably and consistently retrievable in a usable format for authorized users but no one else
Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags cs
tags containing minuscule microchips that transmit information via radio waves and can be used to track the number and location of the objects into which the tags have been inserted
Raw data cs
facts and figures
Retrieval cost cs
the cost of accessing already-stored and processed information
Sequence patterns cs
when two or more database elements occur together in a significant pattern in which one of the elements precedes the other
Storage cost cs
the cost of physically or electronically archiving information for later retrieval and use
Supervised data mining cs
the process when the user tells the data mining software to look and test for specific patterns and relationships in a data set
Web services cs
software that uses standardized protocols to describe data from one company in such a way that those data can automatically be read, understood, transcribed, and processed by different computer systems in another company
authentication
making sure potential users are who they claim to be
authorization
granting authenticated users approved access to data, software, and systems
corporate portals cs
a hybrid of executive information systems and intranets that allows managers and employees to use a web browser to gain access to customized company information and to complete specialized transactions
data warehouse cs
a database that stores huge amounts of data that have been prepared for data mining analysis by being cleaned of errors and redundancy
decision support system (DSS)
cs
an information system that helps managers understand specific kinds of problems and potential solutions
electronic data interchange, or EDI
cs
when two companies convert their purchase and ordering information to a standardized format to enable the direct electronic transmission of that information from one company’s computer system to the other company’s computer system
executive information system (EIS)
a data processing system that uses internal and external data sources to provide the information needed to monitor and analyze organizational performance
extranet cs
networks that allow companies to exchange information and conduct transactions with outsiders by providing them direct, web-based access to authorized parts of a company’s intranet or information system
firewalls cs
a protective hardware or software device that sits between the computers in an internal organizational network and outside networks, such as the Internet
information cs
useful data that can influence people’s choices and behavior
optical character recognition cs
the ability of software to convert digitized documents into ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) text that can be searched, read, and edited by word processing and other kinds of software
predictive patterns cs
patterns that help identify database elements that are different
secure sockets layer (SSL) encryption cs
Internet browser–based encryption that provides secure off-site web access to some data and programs
two-factor authentication
authentication based on what users know, such as a password and what they have in their possession, such as a secure ID card or key
unsupervised data mining cs
the process when the user simply tells the data mining software to uncover whatever patterns and relationships it can find in a data set
virtual private networks (VPNs) cs
software that securely encrypts data sent by employees outside the company network, decrypts the data when they arrive within the company computer network, and does the same when data are sent back to employees outside the network
virus
a program or piece of code that, without your knowledge, attaches itself to other programs on your computer and can trigger anything from a harmless flashing message to the reformatting of your hard drive to a system-wide network shutdown
Continuous improvement cs
an organization’s ongoing commitment to constantly assess and improve the processes and procedures used to create products and services
Customer focus
an organizational goal to concentrate on meeting customers’ needs at all levels of the organization
Economic order quantity (EOQ) cs
a system of formulas that minimizes ordering and holding costs and helps determine how much and how often inventory should be ordered
Holding cost cs
the cost of keeping inventory until it is used or sold, including storage, insurance, taxes, obsolescence, and opportunity costs
ISO 14000 cs
a series of international standards for managing, monitoring, and minimizing an organization’s harmful effects on the environment
ISO 9000 cs
a series of five international standards, from ISO 9000 to ISO 9004, for achieving consistency in quality management and quality assurance in companies throughout the world
Inventory
the amount and number of raw materials, parts, and finished products that a company has in its possession
Job shops cs
manufacturing operations that handle custom orders or small batch jobs
Kanban cs
a ticket-based JIT system that indicates when to reorder inventory
Line-flow production cs
manufacturing processes that are preestablished, occur in a serial or linear manner, and are dedicated to making one type of product
Ordering cost cs
the costs associated with ordering inventory, including the cost of data entry, phone calls, obtaining bids, correcting mistakes, and determining when and how much inventory to order
Partial productivity cs
a measure of performance that indicates how much of a particular kind of input it takes to produce an output
Productivity cs
a measure of performance that indicates how many inputs it takes to produce or create an output
Raw material inventories cs
the basic inputs in a manufacturing process
Setup cost cs
the costs of downtime and lost efficiency that occur when a machine is changed or adjusted to produce a different kind of inventory
Stockout cost cs
the cost incurred when a company runs out of a product, including transaction costs to replace inventory and the loss of customers’ goodwill
Teamwork cs
collaboration between managers and nonmanagers, across business functions, and between companies, customers, and suppliers
Total quality management (TQM) cs
an integrated, principle-based, organization-wide strategy for improving product and service quality
Variation
a deviation in the form, condition, or appearance of a product from the quality standard for that product
assemble-to-order operations cs
a manufacturing operation that divides manufacturing processes into separate parts or modules that are combined to create semicustomized products
average aggregate inventory cs
average overall inventory during a particular time period
batch production cs
a manufacturing operation that produces goods in large batches in standard lot sizes
component parts inventories cs
the basic parts used in manufacturing that are fabricated from raw materials
continuous-flow production cs
a manufacturing operation that produces goods at a continuous, rather than a discrete, rate
customer satisfaction
an organizational goal to provide products or services that meet or exceed customers’ expectations
dependent demand systems cs
an inventory system in which the level of inventory depends on the number of finished units to be produced
finished goods inventories cs
the final outputs of manufacturing operations
independent demand systems cs
an inventory system in which the level of one kind of inventory does not depend on another
internal service quality cs
the quality of treatment employees receive from management and other divisions of a company
inventory turnover cs
the number of times per year that a company sells, or “turns over,” its average inventory
just-in-time (JIT) inventory system cs
an inventory system in which component parts arrive from suppliers just as they are needed at each stage of production
make-to-order operations cs
a manufacturing operation that does not start processing or assembling products until a customer order is received
make-to-stock operations cs
a manufacturing operation that orders parts and assembles standardized products before receiving customer orders
manufacturing flexibility cs
the degree to which manufacturing operations can easily and quickly change the number, kind, and characteristics of products they produce
materials requirement planning (MRP) cs
a production and inventory system that determines the production schedule, production batch sizes, and inventory needed to complete final products
multifactor productivity cs
an overall measure of performance that indicates how much labor, capital, materials, and energy it takes to produce an output
operations management cs
managing the daily production of goods and services
quality cs
a product or service free of deficiencies, or the characteristics of a product or service that satisfy customer needs
service recovery cs
restoring customer satisfaction to strongly dissatisfied customers
stockout cs
the point when a company runs out of finished product
work-in-process inventories cs
partially finished goods consisting of assembled component parts
