Spanish history > Ferdinand and Isabella > Flashcards
Ferdinand and Isabella Flashcards
1494-1516
Italian Wars.
1504
Gained Naples.
Isabella dies.
Joanna Queen of Castile and Archduke Philip of Austria ruled Castile.
Castile and Aragon became two separate kingdoms once again.
Reconquest of the kingdom of Naples.
Until 1515
Defended Milan.
1479
Treaty of Alcaćovas.
1480s
Canaries colonised.
1492
America discovered.
Columbus’s first voyage to the New World.
Expulsion or conversion of the Jews in Castile and Aragon.
End of Granada War - Granada added to the Spanish Empire.
1488-93
Breton Wars.
1493
Cerdagne and Roussillon recovered.
1512
Navarre claimed.
Acquisition of Navarre.
Law of Burgos issued.
1515
Navarre acquired.
1505-10
North African conquests.
Capture of several towns along the north African coast..
1482-92
Granada War.
1481
Aided Rhodes and Naples.
Inquisition established in Aragon.
1502
Expulsion or conversion of the Mudéjars in Castile. Mudéjars were still tolerated in Aragon.
1478
Inquisition established in Castile.
Birth of only son John to Isabella and Ferdinand.
Ferdinand became King of Aragon on his father’s death.
1503-5
166.9 million maravedís entered Seville.
1511-15
537.9 million maravedís entered Seville.
1474
Crown revenue in Castile was 11 million maravedís.
Death of King Henry IV of Castile.
Isabella proclaimed herself Queen of Castile.
War of Succession between Isabella and Joanna, daughter of King Henry IV of Castile.
1510
Crown revenue in Castile was 320 million maravedís.
1516
Ferdinand dies.
1469-79
Civil War and Succession in Aragon.
1475-78
The War of Succession between Spain and Portugal.
1469-74
Civil War in Castile.
1469
marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon.
1492 onwards
New World discoveries.
1475
Ferdinand defeated the King of Portugal in Battle of Toro.
1499
Muslims in Granada had to convert to Catholicism or leave.
1506
Death of Philip of Austria.
Agreement of Villafafila between Philip and Joanna and Ferdinand - Ferdinand returned to Aragon.
Marriage of Ferdinand to king of France’s niece, Germaine de Foix.
1507
Ferdinand returned to Castile and became regent.
1476
An Hermandad was set up in every place with more than 50 inhabitants.
Until 1498
Hermandades remained in place until 1498.
1494
Council of Aragon set up.
Treaties of Tordesillas.
1483
Supreme Inquisition or Suprema formed.
Torquemada appointed first Inquisitor General.
1489
Establishment of the Council of Orders.
By 1493
All members of the royal council had to be letrados, with at least ten years study of law at uni.
1498
Revolt in Granada.
1479
Treaty of Alcaçovas.
1493
Treaty of Barcelona between France and the Crown of Aragon.
Papal bull confirming Spanish rights to new lands in South America.
1495
Holy League set up between Spain, Austria, the Papal States, Milan, Venice and the Holy Roman Empire against the French king, Charles VIII.
1496
Joanna, daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand, married Philip, son and heir of the Holy Roman Emperor.
1497
John, son of Isabella and Ferdinand, married Margaret, daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor.
1504-6
Joanna and Philip rulers of Castile.
Did Ferdinand and Isabella deserve their title of the Catholic monarchs?
- Ferdinand and Isabella were given the title of the Catholic monarchs by Pope Alexander VI in 1496.
- It is an apt title because they were deeply concerned with religious matters and prepared on occasion to place the spiritual health of their kingdoms above other, more mundane, considerations.
- At the same time, however, many of their policies towards the Church can be seen as part of broader policy aims, and as ways of enhancing royal power and status while reducing the influence of vested interests of all kinds, and it would not be true to say that their only motive was religious.
Evidence that the Catholic monarchs tamed the nobility by 1516
- Nobles were forbidden to make private war or to build new castles.
- They were prepared to accept the rule of the two monarchs.
- Opponents arrested, castles burned and lands confiscated.
- Royal lands lost after 1464 were restored.
- Cartagena and Cadiz taken under royal control.
- Control of the military orders.
Evidence that the Catholic monarchs did not tame the nobility by 1516
- Had right to collect the royal tax of alcabala.
- Nobility was encouraged to spend time at court.
- Opportunities to serve in foreign wars.
- Rewards and new tithes, jobs and land all given out.
- The nobility remained in control of regional politics eg Galicia by the Count of Lemos.
- Some nobles continued to threaten the freedom of nearby towns.
- Most nobles kept retainers whereas the Crown had no standing army.
- Nobles served in the Hermandad and the royal army.
- Powerful - Crown had to forge a partnership with the nobility if it was to survive.
- Had to work with the nobility so compromises had to be made.
- Supported ability to remain financially viable.
- Mayorazgo ensured lands remained together.
Restoration of royal authority during the War of Succession
- Isabella attempted to introduce corregidores once a town had declared for her. Limited success.
- Created the Santa Hermandad as a temporary solution to civil war 1476 but lasted until 1498.
- Final victory did restore some of the respect for the crown which had been lost during Henry IV’s reign.
How was peace and order established in Castile and Aragon?
- Personal presences of the monarchs.
- Use of the Hermandades.
- Use of corregidores.
- Improving relations with the nobility.
- Control over the military orders.
How was Castile ruled c. 1469?
-Unified - more powerful monarch.
-Partidas.
-Cortes.
-Royal council.
-Justice - local hermandades.
-Towns - magistrates and councils.
-Royal corregidores.
Further limitations to royal power - provincial aristocracy and nobility - role of the military orders and finance - increased corruption was reducing takings.
How was Aragon ruled c. 1469?
- Federal monarchy - each area ruled in own way - monarch had to respect these fueros.
- Coronation oath of loyalty - the Cortes - based on the King respecting all their liberties and laws.
- Cortes - more powerful than in Castile - separate one for Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia, also Sardinia Sicily and Navarre. Each different - role of diputacions and justiciar.
- Cortes general.
- Viceroys.
- Chancellor.
- Courts of appeal in each realm.
- Effective political power with the towns and cities - no corregidores.
- Strong federalism meant future centralisation unlikely.
What did JH Elliot say about Church reform?
-‘The timing of the reform was perhaps more important than its extent. Cisneros gave the Spanish Church a new strength and vigour at the very moment when the Church was everywhere else under heavy attack’.
Isabella and her faith
- Catholic.
- Pious.
- Devout.
- Religion central to her life.
Aims to change the Church
- Isabella and Ferdinand wanted to: improve the spiritual condition of both clerical and lay subjects, reform the standards of the monastic orders, and secure crown control over all clerical appointments.
- All of these aims caused conflict.
The position of the Spanish Church in the 15th c
- Immensely powerful.
- Very wealthy - income 6 million ducats.
- Archbishop of Toledo was second only to the king in power.
- Bishops - armies, fortresses.
- Widely believed to be in need of reform.
- Abuses were considered widespread.
- Religious orders in disrepute - Franciscans, Benedictines, Dominicans, Augustinians.
- Poor formal instruction - popular beliefs flourished - festivals; pilgrimages; belief in purgatory.
- Festivals organised by town guilds - out of the control of the Church.
- Convivencia had existed since 1264 - racial tension building.
The condition of the clergy
- Isabella was determined to raise standards.
- State of religion commented on by foreigners.
- Absenteeism.
- Married clergy.
- Monks who had not taken Holy Orders.
- 1478 - Archbishop of Toledo called for an end to it - nothing came of it.
- 1492 - 14 Sacristans and Chaplains in Avila were found to be married.
- Isabella wrote to the Bishop of Calahorra - ‘The greater part of the clergy are said to be and are in concubinage publicly and if our justice intervenes to punish them, they revolt.’
- Archbishop Cisneros suffered this same problem.
- Isabella and Ferdinand did not help the situation - bishops in government.
- Cisneros = Isabella’s confessor.
- Ferdinand’s illegitimate son = Archbishop of Zaragoza/
- Most Spaniards did not want reformation - they liked masses, fasts, feasts, pilgrimages, processions.
- Some bishops tried to make a difference.
- Archbishop of Toledo - Mendoza - founded the college of Santa Cruz.
- Archbishop Cisneros - scholarly - four major publications - oversaw the creation of the Polygot Bible.
- Most Spaniards enjoyed the influence of their religion.
Monastic Reform
- Principal orders in Spain = Dominicans, Franciscans and Benedictines.
- Desperately in need of reform but Papal permission needed.
- 1493 - permission granted when Alexander VI became Pope.
- Isabella visited Benedictine lands - horrified.
- 1494 - Cisneros became leader of Franciscans.
- He got rid of conventials.
- Queen and Pope liked his work but thought it too slow - Juan de Guadalupe.
- Aragon outside Cisneros’ influence - no reform until early 16th c when Ferdinand got behind Franciscan observants.
The Papacy and Clerical Appointments
- Lots of clashes between Pope and Catholic Kings - none too serious as long as they got their own way and provided support to the Papacy in the fight against Islam.
- 3 major disagreements:
1. Papacy appointing foreign clerics: 1479 - Isabella appointed her own nominee to Bishopric of Cuenca. Three years later the Crown was making all nominations - Pope merely confirming them. 1486 - Innocent VIII gave them clerical responsibility for Granada and Canaries. 1508 - New World.
2. Appeals against ecclesiastical judgements: judgements would be heard in Valladolid not Rome - Loss of revenue for Rome. No damage to relations.
3. Disagreement over funding for anti-Muslim wars: Isabella and Ferdinand wanted war on Granada. Pope wanted international crusade against the Turks. 1482 - Sixtus IV granted Cruzada (a tax).
The Condition of the Spanish Muslims in 1480
- Number of Moriscos in Castile were very small and posed no serious threat to the economic and social pre-eminence of Old Christians (unlike the conversos).
- Mudéjars of Aragon were numerous: about 30% of Valencia’s population, 20% of Aragon’s and 2% of Catalonia’s.
- But not considered a danger. King had every intention of letting them remain and could rely on the nobility to support this.
- Nasrid kingdom of Granada was considered a threat by Isabella.
- 500,000 Muslims and the final bastion of Islam in Iberia.
Religious reasons for the conquest of Granada
- Crusade against the Muslims.
- Improved relations with the Pope.
Political reasons for the conquest of Granada
- Help unify Spain after the Civil Wars.
- Cement their popularity.
- Provide patronage.
- Prove their legitimacy.
Social reasons for the conquest of Granada
-Help unify Spain.
Economic reasons for the conquest of Granada
- Lands.
- Silk industry.
- Fertile lands.
- Trade links with Africa.
Why did the conquest of Granada not begin until 1482?
- End of civil wars and strong enough then.
- In 1481 Abu-I-Hasanm refused to pay tribute to Castile and Zahara was captured by the Moors.
What happened in the conquest of Granada?
- 1482 begun with the Castilian capture of Alhama and was completed with the surrender of Granada on 2 January 1492.
- There was a number of factors in Ferdinand and Isabella’s success:
1. Internal divisions among Granada’s Muslim rulers.
2. The support of the Papacy.
3. The role of the Andalusian nobles.
4. Ferdinand’s role as a commander.
5. Superior artillery.
6. Isabella’s role in maintaining supplies.
7. The Hermandad.
8. Jews and other subjects providing money.
Religious results of the conquest of Granada
- Pope gave them the title of the Catholic monarchs.
- At first tolerance survived and the treaty was generous/.
- Talavera (first Archbishop) advocated gradual conversion.
- Replaced by Cisneros and forced conversions.
- The problem of the Moriscos.
Political results of the conquest of Granada
- Granada absorbed into Castile.
- Core army gained.
- Increased royal control of the Church.
- International prestige as heroes of Christendom.
Social results of the conquest of Granada
- 100,000 Moors died or enslaved; 200,000 emigrated.
- Helped to create a sense of unity between the people of Castile and Aragon.
- Created the problem of the Moriscos - revolt of the Alpujarras in 1500 and expulsion 1502.
Economic results of the conquest of Granada
- Land.
- Church wealth.
Continuity - reconquest
-The policy of reconquest had been a long term aim.
Change - reconquest
- Increased power of the Crown.
- Improved relationship with Papacy lead to revenues from the Church.
- By gaining Granada for Christianity they were given substantial rights to Church appointments.
- As the Catholic monarchs they gained psychological leverage with the Pope to increase royal patronage in the Spanish Church and set precedent for all overseas conquests.
- Elliot sees this as important part of their religious policies, he emphasises the political advantages for the Crown in controlling the Church.
Convivencia
- The Iberian Peninsula was unique in its mix of faiths.
- Until the mid 15th c Jews, Muslims and Christians had lived more or less peacefully together.
Reasons for re-establishing the Inquisition
- Longstanding anti-semitism and belief that they were helping conversos to be secret Judaizers.
- In 1449 at Avila and Toledo anti-Semitic riots (pogroms) had broken out against rich Jewish families.
- 1470s further riots in Toledo, Cordoba, Seville and Avila.
- In 1478 Isabella, whilst visiting Seville, heard the teaching of the Dominican prior Alonso de Hojeda - he believed conversos were subverting the true faith. Supported by evidence from Cardinal Mendoza and Dominican prior Tomas de Torquemada.
- Contemporary records suggest that there was a serious problem with secret Judaizing among conversos. Possibly exaggerated by number of Jews prepared to condemn converts whom they considered traitors to their faith.
- Ferdinand’s motives for re-establishing the Inquisition appear more political. An institution which would be free from Papal or Castilian control.
- Belief in limpieza de sangre.
How the Inquisition was re-introduced
- Ferdinand and Isabella asked the Pope to give permission to set up the Inquisition in Seville - November 1478.
- Inquiries and a plot by wealthy conversos to oppose it lead to 6 executions February 1481.
- They then gained Papal permission to set up 7 tribunals in Castile.
- Later set up in Aragon based on Aragonese Inquisition. Pope Sixtus IV insisted on regulating it from Rome. Burt Ferdinand refused and eventually the crown was given total administrative control of Inquisition in Spain.
- 1483 Isabella and Ferdinand set up the council of the Supreme Inquisition (the Suprema) - Torquemada in charge - to coordinate activity of local tribunals across Castile and Aragon.
- Holy Offices of the Supreme Inquisition was the only royal institution common to all the Catholic monarchs’ lands.
Consequences of the Inquisition
- Although only responsible for Christians and therefore, converts from other faiths, it helped to end the spirit of the convivencia.
- It also resulted in increased persecution of the Jews, including forced conversions (this extended to Muslims too after the Alpujarras Revolt in 1500). This worsened the situation further - now there were even more Christians with suspect faith.
- Between 1483-1498 2000 conversos were burned to death. The sentences would be declared at an auto de fe but the secular authorities would carry out the execution after the ceremony. A further 15000 ‘reconciled’ (fined, goods confiscated, imprisoned etc).
- There was popular support for its aims.
- But where conversos were influential (eg Barcelona - valued for their communication skills and important capital) the Inquisition met active opposition. In Toledo in 1484 armed resistance planned.
- It was particularly resisted in Aragon. This was partly as there was no serious converso problem. Also the Aragonese complained that it was made up of Castilian officials and was a way of extending royal authority. Barcelona refused to have an Inquisitor until 1487 and then riots at executions 1488.
- Valencia’s Cortes said it infringed fueros. Teruel in Aragon only let the Inquisition in when Ferdinand threatened them with army.
- However in 1485 in Zaragoza Cathedral an Inquisitor was murdered by a converso. This helped to shift Aragonese attitudes towards support for the Inquisition.
- Eventually it was accepted - most had little to fear and conversos and moriscos were generally hated.
- Lots of complaints continued in the cortes about infringing ecclesiastical jurisdictions and unjust methods. Accused of pursuing cases for profits as the fines and confiscated estates were used to fund it.
How did the religious policies of the Catholic monarchs help extend royal authority?
- Church reforms, especially their control over clerical appointments, helped to increase their power. They gained considerable control over the Church and its wealth. They established a close partnership with the Church. ‘‘The active participation of clergy in political life and a close cooperation between Church and state at all level’’ - Kamen.
- In general appointments were religiously motivated and aimed at improving many of the corruptions. Some exceptions though.
- Inquisition only institution common to Castile and Aragon, it was run jointly and increased power of the Crown over the Church. They had sold control of personnel and finances.
- Ferdinand by 1499 was head of all three Military Orders. This increased the power of the crown at the expense of the nobility who had previously dominated the Military Orders.
- Even so Church power was not completely abrogated - the cruzada was subject to renewal and legal appeals to Rome remained.
How important was agriculture?
- Food shortages in 1484 and 1503 - Between 1484 and 1503 food shortages produced famine in Valencia and wheat was regularly imported from Sicily and Sardinia. People were subsistence farmers and arable farmers didn’t suffer from the food shortages.
- Catholic monarchs favoured the Mesta - The Catholic monarchs did nothing to weaken the sheep farmers and particularly favoured the Mesta.
- Subsistence farmers - some sheep farmers received privileges so they could access any fields which had been grazed and granted them rents at very low rates. However, this caused land to become overgrazed and destroyed which had a negative effect on agriculture. There were little developments too as farmers were resistant to change their methods.
How important was industry?
- Not as important as trade and commerce.
- The textile industry declined significantly - the textile industry, specifically wool and silk declined after the Granada war and the expulsion of the Jews in 1492. This meant production levels fell. In 1494, they stopped the production of low quality wool which meant only Southern Castilian towns benefitted as the North produced low quality wool.
- Traders began to sell their wool directly to foreign woollen merchants rather than for home consumption - this caused domestic industry to decrease further.
How important were new resources and markets?
- Trade with the new world allowed them to import and export iron, leather and wine.
- New markets were also created with Africa. They had ownership of cities such as Bougie in Africa which allowed them to use the land and natives to increase production of goods. The new world allowed the Crown to gain more land.
- Enconmiendas made settlers work and produce goods for Spain which led to profits and an increase in goods.
What was royal authority?
-Royal authority was the power Isabella and Ferdinand possessed along with the Crown over their respective kingdoms of Castile and Aragon.
What was the economy like in Spain?
-The economy in Spain in terms of agriculture was poor, there was little fertile land, and the summers were hot and dry so farming was near impossible. Central Castile was dominated by the herdsman and sheep farming industry. Most Castilian towns owed their wealth and success to sheep farming. In Aragon it wasn’t much better, the soil poor, the terrain rocky, it heavily depended on trade with Navarre and Catalonia. Rice, sugar cane and fruit were growing in irrigated land, particularly oranges raisins and pomegranates, these provided wealth through exportation to Northern Europe. Aragon also imported spices and gold, tin and wool, textiles and fish.
How did Ferdinand and Isabella raise money for the Crown?
-Ferdinand and Isabella used various methods in raising money for the Crown. Since Aragon was only able to contribute a small amount of money, the burden fell on Castile. Money was sourced from the Church, and additionally from papal grants and loans. Most of the money came from large sums voted by Castilian Cortes, 90% of the money came from the alcabala, this was a tax on sales. Ferdinand and Isabella had to resort to loans from the nobles, and this became a financial burden for them.
Which was the highest grossing economy in the regions of Spain?
-Castile, because not only of their sheer size, they had access to the ports and additionally they had trading links with the Mediterranean as the bottom of Castile was only 19km away from the top of North Africa. Castile was also where Ferdinand and Isabella spent more of the time, therefore issues such as royal finances were often dealt with in Castile, and the economy was constantly flowing. Additionally Ferdinand did not focus on his ambitions to deal with France as he focused on Isabella’s wants of an all Catholic Spain, so arguably during their reign Aragon could have been seen as neglected.
Did the royals contribute towards the economies in the regions of Spain?
-Yes the royals did contribute in several ways. In the regions of Spain Ferdinand and Isabella didn’t spend Crown money on materialistic things for themselves, they lived ‘normal’ lives, which was often unusual for Kings and Queens. Instead they focused their finance on patronage and court events, this was all to ensure the nobles and people of authority were on Isabella and Ferdinand’s side. They used their money to ensure they had a strong support system, and this would get them into a lot of debt which would fall onto those who ruled after them in Spain, however it was a temporary solution and it worked for Ferdinand and Isabella.
The most significant time period in which the economy handed out support to royal authority?
-Even though it was before 1492 the Granada war was arguably the most significant time period, it lasted ten years and drained the Spanish economy. Lots of money was needed to finance arms and lots of people were needed as well. The military campaign against Granada also had to be funded, it was a chance to complete the Reconquista. To finance the war the Pope granted the monarchs the right to keep the cruzada, the cruzada was a tax earmarked for the Christian crusades. The sheer length of the war drained Spain in all aspects and it was arguable that the conquering of Granada was not worth it because of the sheer blows the Spanish economy took in the ten year period.
What was the biggest downfall of the economy?
-The biggest downfall of the economy was arguably the expulsion of the Jews. After Isabella expelled the Jews from Spain. Many Jewish people and mainly conversos had important jobs in finance, banking and medicine, and after they left Spain the economy took a hit. Most Moors worked in agriculture and Christians possessed many jobs, however a lot of the high paid jobs, went to the Jews and conversos. So after they left Spain (approx 80,000), a lot less money was being put into the economy therefore a lot less was coming out.
Ferdinand and Isabella did receive support from the economy in terms of royal authority, however it did have some consequences?
-During their reign the economy did support Isabella and Ferdinand a lot, and Isabella and Ferdinand got into a vicious cycle. At the start of their reign obtaining finance was an issue, Spain was a considerably poor country, and most of its money was spent on ambassadors and military equipment (especially after 1504, rose 300%). Ferdinand and Isabella had to resort to loans from Spanish nobles, and the repayments were made with 10% interest, they hurriedly became a financial burden to the Crown and to Ferdinand’s successors.
W.H. Prescott’s interpretation (1837)
-‘The most glorious epoch in the annals of Spain’.
J.H. Mariéjol’s interpretation (1892)
-‘The monarchy was falling apart at every joint; the Catholic Sovereigns restored it on a new plan’.
Ramón Menéndez Pidal’s interpretation (1962)
-‘It was a happy golden age’.
John Lynch’s interpretation (1981)
-Their reigns produced the ‘makings of a nation state, united, peaceful beyond any in Europe’.
What was Isabella considered as?
- Ideal monarch who brought greatness to Spain.
- El Encubierto (the hidden one) who saved her people from heresy, slayed the infidel and re-established order.
How successful was Isabella?
- She introduced the Inquisition, assisted Ferdinand in the reconquest of Granada, and purged her country of heretics.
- End of civil war and the restoration of royal justice.
- ‘Golden age’.
Legacy of Henry IV
- Considered impotent, incompetent and unfit to rule.
- Henry ruled Castile for 20 years.
- First half of reign - administered his country effectively.
- Crown depended upon the support of the principal nobles, clergy and towns.
- Political tension was always near.
- Corregidores were resented by town councils.
- Crown was restricted financially and militarily.
Andrés Bernáldez’s interpretation of Henry IV’s reign
-‘Justice became moribund and force ruled’.
How united were Aragon and Castile at the time of Isabella and Ferdinand’s marriage in 1469?
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How did Isabella manage to secure the throne of Castile?
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What were the effects of Isabella and Ferdinand’s victory in the Granada War?
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How successful were Ferdinand and Isabella in their government of Castile and Aragon?
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How successful were the religious policies of Ferdinand and Isabella?
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By 1556, Spain had become the undisputed great military power of Europe. How far had the reign of Isabella and Ferdinand laid the basis for this power?
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Why did Ferdinand and Isabella decide to support Columbus?
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What had been achieved in terms of discovery and settlement in the New World by 1516?
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What were the consequences for Spain of the death of Isabella?
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Was there a ‘New Monarchy’ in Spain between 1492 and 1516?
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