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Feralis 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Ionic bond - transfer of electrons from [….]

A

Ionic bond - transfer of electrons from [one atom to another (different electronegativity)]

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2
Q

Covalent – electrons are […..]

A

Covalent – electrons are [shared between atoms (similar electronegativities)] – can be single, double, triple

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3
Q

Nonpolar covalent bonds = […] sharing of electrons, […..] electronegativity

A

Nonpolar covalent bonds = [equal] sharing of electrons, [identical] electronegativity

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4
Q

Polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and […..])

A

polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and [formation of a dipole])

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5
Q

Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a […..] and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)

A

Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a [highly electronegative atom] and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)

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6
Q

Properties of Water

1. Excellent solvent: […..] break up charged ionic molecules.

A

Properties of Water

1. Excellent solvent: [dipoles of H2O] break up charged ionic molecules.

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7
Q

Properties of Water
2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance [….]. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.

A

Properties of Water
2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance [changes temp in response to gain/loss of heat]. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.

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8
Q

Properties of Water

3. Ice Floats: water expands as it [……..] (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).

A

Properties of Water
3. Ice Floats: water expands as it [freezes, becomes less dense than its liquid form] (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).

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9
Q

Properties of Water
4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to [….]; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.

A

Properties of Water
4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to [H-bonds]; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.

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10
Q

Properties of Water
5. Adhesion: attraction of [……]. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow […..] (e.g. against gravity)

A

Properties of Water
5. Adhesion: attraction of [unlike substances]. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow [without external forces] (e.g. against gravity)

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11
Q

Organic Molecules –
Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form [….] (series of repeating monomers)
4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms

A

Organic Molecules –
Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form [polymers] (series of repeating monomers)
4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms

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12
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (OH): polar and hydrophilic

A

Functional Groups

[Hydroxyl] (OH): polar and hydrophilic

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13
Q

Functional Groups

[….] (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid

A

Functional Groups

[Carboxyl] (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid

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14
Q

Functional Groups

[….] (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base

A

Functional Groups

[Amino] (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base

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15
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)

A

Functional Groups

[Phosphate] (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)

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16
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (C=O): polar and hydrophilic

A

Functional Groups

[Carbonyl] (C=O): polar and hydrophilic

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17
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (H-C=O)

A

Functional Groups

[Aldehyde] (H-C=O)

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18
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (R-C=O)

A

Functional Groups

[Ketone] (R-C=O)

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19
Q

Functional Groups

[……] (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic

A

Functional Groups

[Methyl] (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic

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20
Q

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide = [….] sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)

A

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide = [single] sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)

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21
Q

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=[……])

A

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=[alpha, up=beta])

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22
Q

Carbohydrates

Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a […..] (joined by dehydration)

A

Carbohydrates

Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a [glycosidic linkage] (joined by dehydration)

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23
Q

What are they made of?

sucrose […..], lactose [….], maltose […….]

A

sucrose [glu+fru], lactose [glu+gal], maltose [glu+glu]

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24
Q

Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide = series of [……]
Bond via [….], breakdown via […..]

A

Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide = series of [connected monosaccharides; polymer]
Bond via [dehydration synthesis], breakdown via [hydrolysis]

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25
Q

Starch: a polymer of [……]; store energy in [……].

A

Starch: a polymer of [α-glucose molecules]; store energy in [plant cells].

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26
Q

Glycogen: a polymer of […..]; store energy in […..]. (differ in polymer branching from starch).

A

Glycogen: a polymer of [α-glucose molecules]; store energy in [animal cells]. (differ in polymer branching from starch).

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27
Q

Cellulose: a polymer of [……]; structural molecules for walls of […..].

A

Cellulose: a polymer of [β-glucose]; structural molecules for walls of [plant cells and wood].

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28
Q

Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a [………]. Structural molecule in [….]

A

Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a [nitrogen-containing group attached to ring]. Structural molecule in [fungal cell walls (also exoskeleton of insects, etc)]

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29
Q

Lipids: Hydro[….] molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine

A

Lipids: Hydro[phobic] molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine

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30
Q

Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three [……]

A

Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three [fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone]

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31
Q

Triglycerides

Saturated: no […..] (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack […..])

A

Triglycerides

Saturated: no [double bonds] (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack [densely and form fat plaques])

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32
Q

Triglycerides

Unsaturated: […..] bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause […..])

A

Triglycerides

Unsaturated: [double] bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause [branching = stack less dense])

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33
Q

Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a […..] attached to a glycerol backbone

A

Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a [phosphate group (+R)] attached to a glycerol backbone

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34
Q

Phospholipids are amphipathic = both […..]

A

Phospholipids are amphipathic = both [hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties]

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35
Q

Steroids = three [……] and one […..] (hormones) and cholesterol ([……])

A

Steroids = three [6 membered rings] and one [5 membered ring] (hormones) and cholesterol ([membrane component)

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36
Q

Lipid Derivatives

Waxes – esters of […..]. Used as […..]

A

Lipid Derivatives

Waxes – esters of [fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols]. Used as [protective coating or exoskeleton (lanolin)]

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37
Q

Lipid Derivatives

Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – [……] structure

A

Lipid Derivatives

Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – [4 ringed] structure

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38
Q

Lipid Derivatives
Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ […….] at each end. Pigments which produce […..] in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls

A

Lipid Derivatives
Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ [conjugated double bounds and six membered C-rings] at each end. Pigments which produce [colors] in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls

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39
Q

Lipid Derivatives
Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined […….]. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)

A

Lipid Derivatives
Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined [pyrrole rings]. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)

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40
Q

Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but […..]

A

Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but [triglycerides]

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41
Q

glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ […..] instead of phosphate group

A

glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ [carb group] instead of phosphate group

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42
Q

Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via […..] (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).

A

Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via [lipoproteins] (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).

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43
Q

Note on lipids in membranes:
Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more [….] into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).

A

Note on lipids in membranes:
Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more [mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids] into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).

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44
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids have higher […..] compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased “kinks” in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.

A

Unsaturated fatty acids have higher [boiling point but lower melting point] compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased “kinks” in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.

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45
Q

Double bonds in fatty acids increase [….], thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.

A

Double bonds in fatty acids increase [bond polarity (area of increased electron density!)], thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.

46
Q

Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by […..] bonds

A

Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by [peptide] bonds

47
Q

Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable […..]

A

Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable [R group]

48
Q

Storage protein: [……] in milk, […..] in egg whites, and […..] in corn seeds.

A

Storage protein: [casein] in milk, [ovalbumin] in egg whites, and [zein] in corn seeds.

49
Q

Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries […..], cytochromes carry [……]

A

Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries [oxygen], cytochromes carry [electrons]

50
Q

Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains [……] instead of deoxy-ribose.

A

Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains [ribose] instead of deoxy-ribose.

51
Q

Enzymatic proteins: amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in [……].

A

amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in [starch].

52
Q

Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both […..] based on substrate.

A

Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both [forward and reverse directions] based on substrate.

53
Q

Enzyme […..] is determined by temp and pH

A

Enzyme [efficiency] is determined by temp and pH

54
Q

Enzymes cannot change the [……] of a rxn

A

Enzymes cannot change the [spontaneity] of a rxn

55
Q

Cofactors are [……..] that assist enzymes.

A

Cofactors are [nonprotein molecules] that assist enzymes

56
Q

Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can [……]

A

Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can [act as an enzyme].

57
Q

Holoenzyme is the union of the […..] (the enzyme is called […..] when NOT combined w/ cofactor);

A

Holoenzyme is the union of the [cofactor and the enzyme] (the enzyme is called [apoenzyme/apoprotein] when NOT combined w/ cofactor);

58
Q

Cofactors can be organic (called [……] e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).

A

Cofactors can be organic (called [coenzymes] e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).

59
Q

If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = […..]

A

If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = [prosthetic group]

60
Q

Protein Classifications

simple ([…..])

A

Protein Classifications

simple ([entirely amino acids])

61
Q

Protein Classifications

albumins + globulins (functional and act as […….])

A

Protein Classifications

albumins + globulins (functional and act as [carriers or enzymes])

62
Q

Protein Classifications

scleroproteins ([…..] e.g. collagen)

A

Protein Classifications

scleroproteins ([fibrous, structural] e.g. collagen)

63
Q

Protein Classifications

conjugated ([…..])

A

Protein Classifications

conjugated ([simple protein + nonprotein])

64
Q

Protein Classifications

lipoprotein ([……])

A

Protein Classifications

lipoprotein ([bound to lipid])

65
Q

Protein Classifications

mucoprotein ([…..])

A

Protein Classifications

mucoprotein ([bound to carb])

66
Q

Protein Classifications

chromoprotein (bound to […..])

A

Protein Classifications

chromoprotein (bound to [pigmented molecule])

67
Q

Protein Classifications

metalloprotein ([…..])

A

Protein Classifications

metalloprotein ([complexed around metal ion])

68
Q

Protein Classifications

nucleoprotein ([……])

A

Protein Classifications

nucleoprotein ([contain histone or protamine, bound to nucleic acid])

69
Q

Protein primary structure = [……]

A

Protein primary structure = [sequence of amino acids]

70
Q

Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from […….] (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)

A

Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from [hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids] (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)

71
Q

Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to [……….] (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect {R groups push away from water center}, disulfide bonds, van der waals)

A

Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to [noncovalent interactions between amino acid R groups (subunit interaction)] (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect {R groups push away from water center}, disulfide bonds, van der waals)

72
Q

Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a […..]

A

Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a [grouping of two or more separate peptide chains]

73
Q

All proteins have a [……], and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.

A

All proteins have a [primary structure], and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.

74
Q

Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: […..] (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)

A

Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [globular proteins] (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)

75
Q

Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [……] (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)

A

Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [fibrous/structural proteins] (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)

76
Q

Fibrous proteins are dominated by [……], globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.

A

Fibrous proteins are dominated by [2ndary structure], globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.

77
Q

DNA is a polymer of […..]

A

DNA is a polymer of [nucleotides]

78
Q

DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar [……], phosphate group

A

DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar [deoxyribose], phosphate group

79
Q

DNA Purines – […….] (double ring)— […..] H bonds (AT2, GC3)

A

DNA Purines – [adenine, guanine] (double ring)—[2] H bonds (AT2, GC3)

80
Q

DNA Pyrimidines: […….] (single ring) – […..] H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)

A

DNA Pyrimidines: [thymine, cytosine] (single ring) – [3] H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)

81
Q

A nucleoside is just the […….]

A

A nucleoside is just the [sugar+base]

82
Q

DNA structure

Two [……] strands of a double helix

A

DNA structure

Two [antiparallel] strands of a double helix

83
Q

RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain [……], not deoxyribose

A

RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain [ribose], not deoxyribose

84
Q

In RNA Thymine is replaced by […..] (which pairs with adenine)

A

In RNA Thymine is replaced by [uracil] (which pairs with adenine)

85
Q

RNA is usually […..] stranded

A

RNA is usually [single] stranded

86
Q

Cell doctrine/theory:

1. All living organisms are composed of […….]

A

Cell doctrine/theory:

1. All living organisms are composed of [one or more cells.]

87
Q

Cell doctrine/theory:

2. The cell is the basic unit of [……] in all organisms.

A

Cell doctrine/theory:

2. The cell is the basic unit of [structure, function, and organization] in all organisms.

88
Q

Cell doctrine/theory:

3. All cells come from […..]

A

Cell doctrine/theory:

3. All cells come from [preexisting, living cells.]

89
Q

Cell doctrine/theory:

4. Cells carry hereditary […..]

A

Cell doctrine/theory:

4. Cells carry hereditary [information]

90
Q

RNA world hypothesis proposes that [……] were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).

A

RNA world hypothesis proposes that [self-replicating ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules] were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).

91
Q

RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of […..].

A

RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of [cellular life].

92
Q

RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra […..]).

A

RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra [hydroxyl group]).

93
Q

Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; […….]

A

Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; [DNA -> RNA -> proteins]

94
Q

Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution [……]).

A

Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution [but kills tissue]).

95
Q

[……] microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.

A

[Fluorescence] microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.

96
Q

Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into [……….]: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)

A

Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into [layers based on density]: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)

97
Q

Catalysts lower [……….], accelerating the rate of the rxn

A

Catalysts lower [activation energy], accelerating the rate of the rxn

98
Q

[………] = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer

A

[Metabolism] = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer

99
Q

Concentration of reactants and products determines [……]

Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production

A

Concentration of reactants and products determines [which way a rxn will go]
Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production

100
Q

Enzymes are [……..] that act as catalysts

A

Enzymes are [globular proteins] that act as catalysts

101
Q

Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is [………….]

A

Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is [how enzymes bind to their substrate]

102
Q

Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by [……] like electrons

A

Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by [donating or accepting some component of a rxn] like electrons

103
Q

Coenzyme are [……] , usually donate or accept electrons

Vitamins

A

Coenzyme are [organic cofactors] , usually donate or accept electrons
(Vitamins)

104
Q

Inorganic cofactors are usually [……..] (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)

A

Inorganic cofactors are usually [metal ions] (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)

105
Q

If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a [………]

A

If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a [prosthetic group]

106
Q

ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via [……….] (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.

A

ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via [phosphorylation] (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.

107
Q

Allosteric enzymes – have both an [……]

A

Allosteric enzymes – have both an [active site for substrate binding and an allosteric site for binding of an allosteric effector (activator, inhibitor)]

108
Q

Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by [……]. Can be overcome by [………….]. Km changed but Vmax is not

A

Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by [binding at the active site]. Can be overcome by [increasing substrate cxn]. Km changed but Vmax is not

109
Q

Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by [……….], substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.

A

Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by [binding elsewhere than active site], substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.

110
Q

Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after […………] (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])

A

Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after [one substrate molecule attaches to an active site] (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])

111
Q

Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to [……].

A

Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to [electron interactions].

112
Q

Electronegativity = ability of an atom to [………..]

A

Electronegativity = ability of an atom to [attract electrons]

DAT (3 decks)

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