Feralis 1 Flashcards
Ionic bond - transfer of electrons from [….]
Ionic bond - transfer of electrons from [one atom to another (different electronegativity)]
Covalent – electrons are […..]
Covalent – electrons are [shared between atoms (similar electronegativities)] – can be single, double, triple
Nonpolar covalent bonds = […] sharing of electrons, […..] electronegativity
Nonpolar covalent bonds = [equal] sharing of electrons, [identical] electronegativity
Polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and […..])
polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and [formation of a dipole])
Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a […..] and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)
Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a [highly electronegative atom] and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)
Properties of Water
1. Excellent solvent: […..] break up charged ionic molecules.
Properties of Water
1. Excellent solvent: [dipoles of H2O] break up charged ionic molecules.
Properties of Water
2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance [….]. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.
Properties of Water
2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance [changes temp in response to gain/loss of heat]. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.
Properties of Water
3. Ice Floats: water expands as it [……..] (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).
Properties of Water
3. Ice Floats: water expands as it [freezes, becomes less dense than its liquid form] (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).
Properties of Water
4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to [….]; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.
Properties of Water
4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to [H-bonds]; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.
Properties of Water
5. Adhesion: attraction of [……]. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow […..] (e.g. against gravity)
Properties of Water
5. Adhesion: attraction of [unlike substances]. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow [without external forces] (e.g. against gravity)
Organic Molecules –
Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form [….] (series of repeating monomers)
4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms
Organic Molecules –
Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form [polymers] (series of repeating monomers)
4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms
Functional Groups
[…..] (OH): polar and hydrophilic
Functional Groups
[Hydroxyl] (OH): polar and hydrophilic
Functional Groups
[….] (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid
Functional Groups
[Carboxyl] (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid
Functional Groups
[….] (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base
Functional Groups
[Amino] (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base
Functional Groups
[…..] (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)
Functional Groups
[Phosphate] (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)
Functional Groups
[…..] (C=O): polar and hydrophilic
Functional Groups
[Carbonyl] (C=O): polar and hydrophilic
Functional Groups
[…..] (H-C=O)
Functional Groups
[Aldehyde] (H-C=O)
Functional Groups
[…..] (R-C=O)
Functional Groups
[Ketone] (R-C=O)
Functional Groups
[……] (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic
Functional Groups
[Methyl] (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide = [….] sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide = [single] sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=[……])
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=[alpha, up=beta])
Carbohydrates
Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a […..] (joined by dehydration)
Carbohydrates
Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a [glycosidic linkage] (joined by dehydration)
What are they made of?
sucrose […..], lactose [….], maltose […….]
sucrose [glu+fru], lactose [glu+gal], maltose [glu+glu]
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide = series of [……]
Bond via [….], breakdown via […..]
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide = series of [connected monosaccharides; polymer]
Bond via [dehydration synthesis], breakdown via [hydrolysis]
Starch: a polymer of [……]; store energy in [……].
Starch: a polymer of [α-glucose molecules]; store energy in [plant cells].
Glycogen: a polymer of […..]; store energy in […..]. (differ in polymer branching from starch).
Glycogen: a polymer of [α-glucose molecules]; store energy in [animal cells]. (differ in polymer branching from starch).
Cellulose: a polymer of [……]; structural molecules for walls of […..].
Cellulose: a polymer of [β-glucose]; structural molecules for walls of [plant cells and wood].
Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a [………]. Structural molecule in [….]
Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a [nitrogen-containing group attached to ring]. Structural molecule in [fungal cell walls (also exoskeleton of insects, etc)]
Lipids: Hydro[….] molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine
Lipids: Hydro[phobic] molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three [……]
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three [fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone]
Triglycerides
Saturated: no […..] (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack […..])
Triglycerides
Saturated: no [double bonds] (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack [densely and form fat plaques])
Triglycerides
Unsaturated: […..] bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause […..])
Triglycerides
Unsaturated: [double] bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause [branching = stack less dense])
Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a […..] attached to a glycerol backbone
Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a [phosphate group (+R)] attached to a glycerol backbone
Phospholipids are amphipathic = both […..]
Phospholipids are amphipathic = both [hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties]
Steroids = three [……] and one […..] (hormones) and cholesterol ([……])
Steroids = three [6 membered rings] and one [5 membered ring] (hormones) and cholesterol ([membrane component)
Lipid Derivatives
Waxes – esters of […..]. Used as […..]
Lipid Derivatives
Waxes – esters of [fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols]. Used as [protective coating or exoskeleton (lanolin)]
Lipid Derivatives
Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – [……] structure
Lipid Derivatives
Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – [4 ringed] structure
Lipid Derivatives
Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ […….] at each end. Pigments which produce […..] in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls
Lipid Derivatives
Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ [conjugated double bounds and six membered C-rings] at each end. Pigments which produce [colors] in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls
Lipid Derivatives
Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined […….]. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)
Lipid Derivatives
Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined [pyrrole rings]. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)
Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but […..]
Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but [triglycerides]
glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ […..] instead of phosphate group
glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ [carb group] instead of phosphate group
Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via […..] (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).
Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via [lipoproteins] (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).
Note on lipids in membranes:
Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more [….] into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).
Note on lipids in membranes:
Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more [mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids] into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).
Unsaturated fatty acids have higher […..] compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased “kinks” in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.
Unsaturated fatty acids have higher [boiling point but lower melting point] compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased “kinks” in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.
Double bonds in fatty acids increase [….], thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.
Double bonds in fatty acids increase [bond polarity (area of increased electron density!)], thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by […..] bonds
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by [peptide] bonds
Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable […..]
Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable [R group]
Storage protein: [……] in milk, […..] in egg whites, and […..] in corn seeds.
Storage protein: [casein] in milk, [ovalbumin] in egg whites, and [zein] in corn seeds.
Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries […..], cytochromes carry [……]
Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries [oxygen], cytochromes carry [electrons]
Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains [……] instead of deoxy-ribose.
Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains [ribose] instead of deoxy-ribose.
Enzymatic proteins: amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in [……].
amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in [starch].
Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both […..] based on substrate.
Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both [forward and reverse directions] based on substrate.
Enzyme […..] is determined by temp and pH
Enzyme [efficiency] is determined by temp and pH
Enzymes cannot change the [……] of a rxn
Enzymes cannot change the [spontaneity] of a rxn
Cofactors are [……..] that assist enzymes.
Cofactors are [nonprotein molecules] that assist enzymes
Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can [……]
Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can [act as an enzyme].
Holoenzyme is the union of the […..] (the enzyme is called […..] when NOT combined w/ cofactor);
Holoenzyme is the union of the [cofactor and the enzyme] (the enzyme is called [apoenzyme/apoprotein] when NOT combined w/ cofactor);
Cofactors can be organic (called [……] e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).
Cofactors can be organic (called [coenzymes] e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).
If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = […..]
If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = [prosthetic group]
Protein Classifications
simple ([…..])
Protein Classifications
simple ([entirely amino acids])
Protein Classifications
albumins + globulins (functional and act as […….])
Protein Classifications
albumins + globulins (functional and act as [carriers or enzymes])
Protein Classifications
scleroproteins ([…..] e.g. collagen)
Protein Classifications
scleroproteins ([fibrous, structural] e.g. collagen)
Protein Classifications
conjugated ([…..])
Protein Classifications
conjugated ([simple protein + nonprotein])
Protein Classifications
lipoprotein ([……])
Protein Classifications
lipoprotein ([bound to lipid])
Protein Classifications
mucoprotein ([…..])
Protein Classifications
mucoprotein ([bound to carb])
Protein Classifications
chromoprotein (bound to […..])
Protein Classifications
chromoprotein (bound to [pigmented molecule])
Protein Classifications
metalloprotein ([…..])
Protein Classifications
metalloprotein ([complexed around metal ion])
Protein Classifications
nucleoprotein ([……])
Protein Classifications
nucleoprotein ([contain histone or protamine, bound to nucleic acid])
Protein primary structure = [……]
Protein primary structure = [sequence of amino acids]
Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from […….] (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)
Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from [hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids] (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)
Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to [……….] (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect {R groups push away from water center}, disulfide bonds, van der waals)
Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to [noncovalent interactions between amino acid R groups (subunit interaction)] (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect {R groups push away from water center}, disulfide bonds, van der waals)
Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a […..]
Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a [grouping of two or more separate peptide chains]
All proteins have a [……], and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.
All proteins have a [primary structure], and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: […..] (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [globular proteins] (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [……] (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [fibrous/structural proteins] (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)
Fibrous proteins are dominated by [……], globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.
Fibrous proteins are dominated by [2ndary structure], globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.
DNA is a polymer of […..]
DNA is a polymer of [nucleotides]
DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar [……], phosphate group
DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar [deoxyribose], phosphate group
DNA Purines – […….] (double ring)— […..] H bonds (AT2, GC3)
DNA Purines – [adenine, guanine] (double ring)—[2] H bonds (AT2, GC3)
DNA Pyrimidines: […….] (single ring) – […..] H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)
DNA Pyrimidines: [thymine, cytosine] (single ring) – [3] H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)
A nucleoside is just the […….]
A nucleoside is just the [sugar+base]
DNA structure
Two [……] strands of a double helix
DNA structure
Two [antiparallel] strands of a double helix
RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain [……], not deoxyribose
RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain [ribose], not deoxyribose
In RNA Thymine is replaced by […..] (which pairs with adenine)
In RNA Thymine is replaced by [uracil] (which pairs with adenine)
RNA is usually […..] stranded
RNA is usually [single] stranded
Cell doctrine/theory:
1. All living organisms are composed of […….]
Cell doctrine/theory:
1. All living organisms are composed of [one or more cells.]
Cell doctrine/theory:
2. The cell is the basic unit of [……] in all organisms.
Cell doctrine/theory:
2. The cell is the basic unit of [structure, function, and organization] in all organisms.
Cell doctrine/theory:
3. All cells come from […..]
Cell doctrine/theory:
3. All cells come from [preexisting, living cells.]
Cell doctrine/theory:
4. Cells carry hereditary […..]
Cell doctrine/theory:
4. Cells carry hereditary [information]
RNA world hypothesis proposes that [……] were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).
RNA world hypothesis proposes that [self-replicating ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules] were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).
RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of […..].
RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of [cellular life].
RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra […..]).
RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra [hydroxyl group]).
Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; […….]
Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; [DNA -> RNA -> proteins]
Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution [……]).
Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution [but kills tissue]).
[……] microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.
[Fluorescence] microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.
Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into [……….]: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)
Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into [layers based on density]: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)
Catalysts lower [……….], accelerating the rate of the rxn
Catalysts lower [activation energy], accelerating the rate of the rxn
[………] = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer
[Metabolism] = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer
Concentration of reactants and products determines [……]
Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production
Concentration of reactants and products determines [which way a rxn will go]
Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production
Enzymes are [……..] that act as catalysts
Enzymes are [globular proteins] that act as catalysts
Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is [………….]
Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is [how enzymes bind to their substrate]
Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by [……] like electrons
Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by [donating or accepting some component of a rxn] like electrons
Coenzyme are [……] , usually donate or accept electrons
Vitamins
Coenzyme are [organic cofactors] , usually donate or accept electrons
(Vitamins)
Inorganic cofactors are usually [……..] (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)
Inorganic cofactors are usually [metal ions] (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)
If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a [………]
If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a [prosthetic group]
ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via [……….] (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.
ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via [phosphorylation] (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.
Allosteric enzymes – have both an [……]
Allosteric enzymes – have both an [active site for substrate binding and an allosteric site for binding of an allosteric effector (activator, inhibitor)]
Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by [……]. Can be overcome by [………….]. Km changed but Vmax is not
Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by [binding at the active site]. Can be overcome by [increasing substrate cxn]. Km changed but Vmax is not
Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by [……….], substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.
Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by [binding elsewhere than active site], substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.
Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after […………] (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])
Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after [one substrate molecule attaches to an active site] (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])
Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to [……].
Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to [electron interactions].
Electronegativity = ability of an atom to [………..]
Electronegativity = ability of an atom to [attract electrons]
