Feminism

Question 1

MASCULINE NORMS AND VIOLENCE: MAKING THE CONNECTIONS - Brian Heilman with Gary Barker (Promundo-US - now Equimundo); 2018

Founded in Brazil in 1997, Promundo works to promote gender equality and create a world free from violence by engaging men and boys in partnership with women and girls. Promundo is a global consortium with members in the United States, Brazil, Portugal, and Democratic Republic of the Congo that collaborate to achieve this mission by conducting cutting edge research that builds the knowledge base on masculinities and gender equality; developing, evaluating, and scaling up high-impact gender transformative interventions and programs; and carrying out national and international campaigns and advocacy initiatives to prevent violence and promote gender justice.

Answer 1

The report begins by highlighting a stark reality: men and boys are overwhelmingly more likely to both perpetrate violence—including intimate partner violence, homicide, sexual violence, and bullying—and to die by violence, whether through homicide, suicide, or in armed conflict. While biology may play a role, the report firmly asserts that the main drivers of men’s violence are social, not natural. Central to this issue are masculine norms—socially reinforced ideas about how men and boys should think, feel, and behave. These norms often reward dominance, emotional suppression, and aggression, contributing to a culture where violence becomes a defining feature of manhood.

The report defines masculine norms as messages, stereotypes, and social instructions related to being a man. These norms are not only shaped by gender identity but also intersect with factors like race, class, sexual orientation, and geography. Harmful masculine norms are reinforced by institutions (e.g., media, education, religion), social interactions, and cultural expectations. The report stresses that these norms don’t operate in a vacuum—they intersect with systems of oppression such as racism, economic inequality, and colonialism, influencing how men experience and use violence.

To explain how masculine norms shape violence, the report introduces five core processes, grounded in gender theory and sociological research. First is “achieving socially recognized manhood,” which suggests that being seen as a “real man” is something men must constantly earn by meeting rigid, often contradictory standards—being strong, dominant, heterosexual, and emotionally stoic. This demand pressures men to prove their masculinity, often through risky or violent behaviors.

Second is “policing masculine performance,” where men and boys are socially punished or shamed if they deviate from masculine norms. These sanctions can include ridicule, bullying, or even violence. This creates a feedback loop where men enforce masculinity not only for themselves but also on others. Gender becomes something actively “performed,” and any failure to conform can provoke a corrective response.

The third process is “gendering the heart,” which refers to the way men are taught to repress emotions. From a young age, many boys are discouraged from showing vulnerability, affection, or sadness. This emotional isolation has serious consequences, including limited empathy, damaged relationships, mental health struggles, and a higher risk of both interpersonal and self-directed violence. The report links emotional repression directly to men’s disproportionate suicide rates and reluctance to seek help.

Fourth, the report explores “dividing spaces and cultures by gender.” Certain environments—like sports, gang life, military settings, or workplaces—are coded as masculine and tend to reinforce aggressive, competitive, and exclusionary norms. In these spaces, violence is often normalized or celebrated. Meanwhile, women and girls are more often associated with private, domestic spaces, reinforcing gendered divisions of labor, influence, and risk exposure.

The fifth process, “reinforcing patriarchal power,” shows how masculine norms are part of a broader system of inequality. Patriarchy advantages not only men over women but also some men over others—for example, older men over younger men, white men over men of color, or heterosexual men over LGBTQ+ men. Violence is both a tool used to maintain these hierarchies and a byproduct of their existence. The report illustrates this with examples such as police violence, economic control, and political dominance.

In addition to this conceptual framework, the report applies these five processes to eight specific forms of violence that disproportionately involve men: (1) intimate partner violence, (2) violence against children, (3) child sexual abuse and exploitation, (4) bullying, (5) homicide and violent crime, (6) non-partner sexual violence, (7) suicide, and (8) war and conflict. In each case, the report draws from a range of global studies and data to show how masculine norms increase the likelihood of men’s involvement in violence—either as perpetrators or victims.

For example, in intimate partner violence, studies show that men who adhere to rigid gender roles or witnessed violence in childhood are more likely to abuse their partners. In child abuse, boys are often physically disciplined to “toughen them up,” while girls are taught submission, reinforcing early power dynamics. Bullying, especially among school-aged boys, often serves to enforce gender conformity and social dominance. In war and organized violence, masculinity is militarized, and male youth are recruited or radicalized using gendered narratives about strength and sacrifice.

Importantly, the report emphasizes that not all men conform to harmful masculine norms, and many actively resist them. Citing work by Gary Barker (Dying to Be Men, 2005) and Taylor et al. (2016), the report shares stories of young men in high-violence communities who reject violent masculinities and embrace empathy, equality, and nonviolence. These young men often have support systems—family members, mentors, or peer groups—that model alternative ways of being men. Their resistance is strengthened by participation in sports, religious communities, education, or meaningful extracurricular activities that provide nonviolent identities and validation.

The report ends with a call to action. It argues that addressing violence requires transforming masculine norms as part of broader efforts to challenge patriarchy and inequality. This includes supporting gender-transformative programs, promoting emotional literacy and empathy among boys and men, engaging men as allies in violence prevention, and addressing the intersectional systems—racism, poverty, homophobia—that reinforce harmful norms. The report makes clear that while masculine norms are not the sole cause of violence, they are a powerful and preventable driver that must be addressed through both individual and systemic change.

FULL RESEARCH BREAKDOWN

1. R.W. Connell – Gender and Power (1987), Masculinities (2005)
   Researcher: Raewyn (formerly Robert) Connell

Affiliation: University of Sydney (Australia)

Role: Sociologist and gender theorist; originator of “hegemonic masculinity”

What & How: Theoretical work based on sociological theory and global case studies. Developed the concept of hegemonic masculinity to explain how societies uphold male dominance through cultural norms.

2. Connell & Messerschmidt – Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept (2005)
   Researchers: Raewyn Connell (University of Sydney) and James W. Messerschmidt (University of Southern Maine)

Roles: Gender theorist and criminologist, respectively

What & How: Conceptual paper that revises the hegemonic masculinity framework to emphasize its dynamic, context-based nature. Synthesized empirical and theoretical work from various disciplines.

3. West & Zimmerman – Doing Gender (1987)
   Researchers: Candace West (University of California, Santa Cruz) & Don Zimmerman (University of California, Santa Barbara)

Roles: Sociologists

What & How: Sociological theory paper introducing the idea that gender is not fixed but performed. Grounded in ethnomethodology and real-world observations.

4. Judith Butler – Performative Acts and Gender Constitution (1988)
   Researcher: Judith Butler (University of California, Berkeley)

Role: Philosopher and gender theorist

What & How: Theoretical essay applying performance theory to gender. Butler argued that gender identity is constituted through repeated social actions, not biology.

5. Ridgeway & Smith-Lovin (1999); Ridgeway & Correll (2004)
   Researchers: Cecilia Ridgeway (Stanford University), Shelley Correll (Stanford), and Lynn Smith-Lovin (Duke University)

Roles: Sociologists specializing in social structure and inequality

What & How: Empirical and theoretical studies examining how gender acts as a status characteristic in social interaction. Used experimental social psychology and observational research.

6. Messerschmidt & Messner – Some Men: Feminist Allies and the Movement to End Violence Against Women (2018)
   Researchers: James W. Messerschmidt (University of Southern Maine) & Michael A. Messner (University of Southern California)

Roles: Criminologist and sociologist of gender and sport

What & How: Conceptual analysis drawing from feminist theory, criminal justice, and program evaluation to examine plural masculinities and violence prevention.

7. Lori Heise – What Works to Prevent Partner Violence? (2011)
   Researcher: Dr. Lori Heise (Johns Hopkins University / LSHTM)

Role: Global health and violence prevention expert

What & How: Global evidence review synthesizing findings from dozens of IPV prevention programs, cross-sectional studies, and interventions. Focused on norms and childhood exposure as predictors.

8. Todd Moore & Gregory L. Stuart – Illicit Substance Use and Intimate Partner Violence (2005)
   Researchers: Dr. Todd M. Moore (University of Tennessee) & Dr. Gregory L. Stuart (University of Mississippi Medical Center)

Roles: Psychologists focused on substance use and partner violence

What & How: Clinical research examining the psychological profiles and histories of men who commit IPV, particularly regarding insecurity about masculinity and substance use.

9. Ruti Levtov et al. – Pathways to Gender-Equitable Men (2014)
   Researchers: Ruti Levtov (Promundo-US), Gary Barker (Promundo-US), Brian Heilman (Promundo-US), Dean Peacock (Sonke Gender Justice)

Roles: Gender equality researchers and practitioners

What & How: Based on IMAGES (International Men and Gender Equality Survey), conducted in multiple countries. Used large-scale surveys to analyze how gender-equitable attitudes develop in men.

10. Rachel Jewkes – Rape Perpetration: A Review of the Literature (2012)
    Researcher: Dr. Rachel Jewkes (South African Medical Research Council / London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine)

Role: Epidemiologist and violence prevention expert

What & How: Review of ~300 global studies analyzing the causes of sexual violence, identifying gender-inequitable attitudes as a key risk factor.

11. Hanson & Morton-Bourgon – The Characteristics of Persistent Sexual Offenders (2005)
    Researchers: Karl R. Hanson (Public Safety Canada) & Kelly E. Morton-Bourgon (Department of Justice, Canada)

Roles: Criminologists specializing in offender profiling

What & How: Meta-analysis of over 100 empirical studies of sexual offenders, focused on identifying predictors of repeat offenses, including antisocial personality traits.

12. Prentky, Knight & Lee (1997) – Risk Factors in the Recidivism of Sex Offenders
    Researchers: Robert A. Prentky, Raymond A. Knight, Austin J. Lee (Brandeis University and Bridgewater State Hospital)

Roles: Clinical psychologists and researchers in forensic mental health

What & How: Longitudinal clinical analysis of convicted sexual offenders to assess patterns of recidivism and psychological risk factors.

13. Ricardo & Barker – Men, Masculinities, Sexual Exploitation of Children (2008)
    Researchers: Christine Ricardo & Gary Barker (Promundo)

Roles: Gender justice researchers and practitioners

What & How: Theoretical and programmatic report analyzing how masculine norms fuel demand for child sexual exploitation. Based on case studies and practitioner interviews.

14. ECPAT International – Global Monitoring Reports on the Status of Action Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (2013)
    Organization: ECPAT International (End Child Prostitution and Trafficking)

What & How: Aggregated global data, policy analysis, and case documentation across countries. Examined demand-side drivers of commercial sexual exploitation, particularly the role of male consumers.

15. Heilman, Barker & Harrison – The Man Box Study (2017)
    Researchers: Brian Heilman (Promundo-US), Gary Barker (Promundo-US), Alex Harrison (Unilever Initiative)

Roles: Gender norms researchers and program leaders

What & How: Quantitative survey of 3,600+ young men in the U.S., UK, and Mexico. Measured attitudes around masculinity and linked rigid gender norms to bullying, depression, and violence.

16. Athanasiades & Deliyanni-Kouimtzis – Views on School Bullying and Gender Roles (2010)
    Researchers: C. Athanasiades & V. Deliyanni-Kouimtzis (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece)

Roles: Educational psychologists and gender researchers

What & How: Qualitative study using interviews and focus groups with Greek students and teachers. Found gender biases in how aggression is perceived and punished in schools.

17. Crowther-Dowey & Silvestri – Gender and Crime (2017)
    Researchers: Gillian Crowther-Dowey (Nottingham Trent University), Marisa Silvestri (Kingston University London)

Roles: Criminologists and gender scholars

What & How: Textbook-style literature review and criminological analysis of how crime is used as a way for marginalized men to assert masculinity.

18. Heilman, Hebert & Paul-Gera – The Making of Sexual Violence: How Does a Boy Grow Up to Commit Rape? (2014)
    Researchers: Brian Heilman, Gary Barker (Promundo-US), Alec Paul-Gera (independent researcher)

What & How: Literature synthesis and data analysis from IMAGES surveys and other research. Linked childhood violence, gender norms, and economic stress to sexual violence perpetration.

19. Gary Barker – Dying to Be Men: Youth, Masculinity and Social Exclusion (2005)
    Researcher: Dr. Gary Barker (Promundo, now Equimundo)

Role: Founder of Promundo and leading expert in masculinities

What & How: Ethnographic and program-based study in Brazil, South Africa, and elsewhere. Focused on how young men resist or conform to violent masculinities in marginalized settings.

20. Taylor et al. – “This Isn’t the Life for You”: Masculinities and Nonviolence in Rio de Janeiro (2016)
    Researchers: Alice Taylor, Caroline Marcondes, Michelle Figueira, & Gary Barker (Promundo)

What & How: Qualitative interviews with young men in Rio’s favelas. Explored how alternatives to gang involvement (sports, religion, school) provided paths to nonviolent masculine identities.