feminism Flashcards
what is sex
refers to biological differences between men and women. humans are assigned their sex at birth male or female
there are 2 main debates concerning sex
difference feminism vs equality feminism
transfeminism vs transfeminist sceptics
what is gender
gender is used to explain the ‘gender roles’ of men and women
majority of feminists argue that gender roles are socially constructed and form gender stereotypes.
Simone de Beauvoir argued that biological differences between men and women had been used by a male dominated state and society as a justification for predetermining the gender role of women
believed men had characterised themselves as the norm and women as the other. this otherness left women subordinate to men
she argued mens domination meant that they were the ‘first sex’ and women the second sex
who is Simone Beauvoir
1908-86
drew on her own unhappy experiences of childhood
offered a powerful critique of sex and gender in ‘the second sex’ 1949
she argued that femininity was an artificial societal construct ‘ one is not born but rather becomes a women’
in some ways she was as much a humanist as a feminist ‘ the fact that we are human beings is infinitely more important than all the peculiarities that distinguish human beings from one another’
‘otherness’ is imposed on women by men. male domination meant that men were the ‘first sex’ while women were the ‘second sex’ as men argued that they were the norm.
what are other views on sex and gender
Charlotte Perkins Gilman - 1860-1935 argued that gender roles are socially constructed from a young age , subordinating women to the will of men. women are socialised into thinking themselves naturally weaker than men
Kate millett and bell hooks both perceive social construction as beginning in childhood within the family unit. therefore gender roles are not natural or inevitable
what is first wave feminism
first wave feminism extended classical liberalism ideas about human nature and freedom so they explicitly included women
these ideas wished for the state to reform society and economy
wollenstonecraft (not a feminism key thinker) in ‘a vindication of the rights of women’ argued that women were just rational as men and should receive the same educational opportunities.
Taylor mill in ‘enfranchisement of women’ argued that women should have the same right to vote as men and also play a role in the making of the law
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (key thinker) - argued that women should have equal opportunities in the work place and conceptualised the idea of economic independence for women
what is second wave feminism
second wave feminism had divergent solutions to womens problems.
liberal feminists influenced by Freidan and first wave feminism argued for the state to reform society and the economy , allowing women equality within the public sphere of society .
radical feminists influences by millet and Greer saw the state as part of the problem and wanted radical changes to the public and private spheres of society.
socialist feminists influenced by some of the ideas of Rowbotham argued that only under a socialist feminism revolution could the inequalities of both capitalism and female oppression be solved.
second wave feminism was united by one idea that women were being opressed by men , a concept that became known as patriarchy
what is the patriarchy
derived from the greek patriarchs meaning ‘head of the tribe’
in feminism its used to describe a social system supporting male domination and female subordination.
Kate millet is credited for the first analysis of it but most feminists engage wit the concept
liberal feminists - believe that patriarchy can be reformed by the state and in western society there are numerous examples - female emancipation, access to education, workplace equality, legislation of abortion , changes in marriage and divorce law
radical feminists - believe that patriarchy is too pervasive to be reformed
instead change must be revolutionary
germaine gréer argued that male respect for women is an affection as they have a deep seated loathing of women , which is shown by the obscenities used to describe womens sexual organs - ‘women have very little idea how much men hate them’
Barbara Goodwin concludes the sheer number of domestic violence and rape cases give women some idea
socialist feminists - believe that female consciousness is created by men as a part of the capitalist machine
Sheila Rowbotham adopted a marxist theory of history that concluded that women have always been oppressed and that a revolution was needed which would destroy both capitalism an patriarchy
what is 3 wave feminism
identified 6 overlapping patriarchal structures that promote discrimination
the state - underrepresents women in power
household- society conditions women into believing there natural role is mother/homemake
violence- one in 4 women in the uk will experience domestic violence from men
paid work - women are often underpaid when in same role as men. women careers tend to be linked to gender stereotypes eg nurse
sexuality - women are made to feel that their sexual feelings are abnormal, wrong or deviant
culture - society reinforces roles of women , through woman being the primary carer and objecting how women should look. feminists argue that highly sexualised male fantasy versions of women are found in the media, pressurising women to look a certain way and is often linked to anorexia
what is postmodern/ 4th wave feminism
bell hooks argued that feminist discussions have primaryly been from white middle class perspective. she argued that women of different ethnicities and socioeconomic classes have been neglected by mainstream feminism
4th wave feminism argues that patriarchy is especially misogynistic in the developing world with female circumcision, forced marriage and sexual violence more prevalent than in the west
what is the personal is the political
associated with second wave - Not changing from a legal point of view but a changing peoples mind - the culture had engrained patriarchy
‘personal is political’ wanted to challenge this
liberal feminists focus on the public sphere of society eg equal pay whereas radical feminists refute this, arguing that ‘the personal is the political’ as patriarchy is prevalent in the private sphere of family life
gilman berated the misery of woman’s private lives and the exploitative nature of domestic roles. society pressure forced young girls to conform to motherhood, with gender specific clothes and toys - she argued for gender neutral garments and toys
Rowbotham argued that marriage was ike feudalism, with women akin to serfs paying feudal dues to their husband
de Beauvoir championed contraception as it allowed women control of their bodies and way to avoid endless child bearing
millet believed ‘family’ was a social construct and not a natural arrangement
she believed patriarchy granted men ownership over their wife and children entrenching sexism with the idea of male superiority
family socialised children into recognising masculine authority and female marginalisation
marriage saw women lose their identity by taking their husbands surname
who was Kate millett
American academic wrote ‘sexual politics’ 1970
perhaps the most influential radical feminist, she challenged liberal feminism by arguing the personal was the political
she perceived family unit as the foundation of patriarchal thought as children were socialised into gender roles
patriarchy reinforced hetrosexualism as being superior bisexual or homosexual relationships
womens gender roles were stereotyped in art and literature
equality vs difference feminism
majority of feminists are equality feminists - believe biological differences are inconsequential and that gender differences are socially constructed thus holding that there are no specific famine traits
de Beauvoir dismissed the idea of innate female characteristics as ‘a myth invented by men to confine women to their oppressed state’
men and women were essentially the same and de Beauvoir argued that women had been dominated in part because of their bodies - ‘her ovaries condemn her to live forever on her knees’
she argued for contraceptives, abortion, rejection of the family and monogamy would allow women to compete with men in society.
difference feminism
minority of feminists disagree with equality feminism believing in essentialism whereby biological differences are consequential and do determine gender differences
Carol Gilligan a prominent difference feminist argued that sex was one of the most important determinants of human behaviour , saying that women are naturally more nurturing , caring and communal than men
argues that there has been an assumption that there is ‘a single Mode of social experience and interpretation’ when in fact men and women experience and interpret the world in different ways
equality feminism therefore misunderstands these differences leading to women attempting to replicate male behaviour while neglecting their own natures
cultural feminism - more extreme version of difference feminism
challenges the dominance of men in society, asserting that womens values are superior and should be promoted
believe in a distinct ‘female essence’ which is caring and nurturing as opposed to aggressive and competitive
critics argue that this is inverted sexism
what is intersectionality
bell hooks criticised second wave feminists for conceptualising feminism from a white middle-class perspective arguing that both liberal and radical feminists largely exclude the concerns of minority groups - ‘individual black feminists despaired as we witnessed the appropriation of feminist ideology by elitist, racists, white women’
hooks ideas inspired Kimberly Crenshaws theory of intersectionality that challenged the notion that gender is the most important factor in understanding womens lives
she uses degraffenreid v general motors case - 1976 5 black employees sued General Motors for wrongful dismissal based on discrimination. court viewed discrimination through distinct lens of race and gender and dismissed the case because General Motors continued to employ black men and white women.
therefore individuals can be oppressed on multiple overlapping areas such as gender, class and race
who was bell hooks
1952-
believed that society is full of complex relationships between different minorities. her key work is ‘aint I a women: black women and feminism’
women of colour - hooks broadened the feminist debate as she felt it was too focused on middle and upper class college educated white women. she focused on ‘women of colour’ and all social classes
intersectionality - her ideas greatly influenced the idea of intersectionality - a term coined by Kimberle crenshaw- which challenged the feminist assumption that gender was the most important factor in determining a womens life experiences
Kimberly Crenshaw - ‘sexism isn’t a one size fits all phenomenon. it doesn’t happen to black and white women in the same way’
what is liberal feminism
argues that via democratic pressure, gender stereotypes can be eliminated.
unlike radical and social feminists they do not believe there needs to be revolutionary change in the way state, society and economy is organised
liberal feminists focus on the public sphere (society) rather than on the private sphere (family)
influenced by liberal values of individualism, foundational equality and equality of opportunity
Mary wollenstonecraft argued for political equality - votes for women
assumption was that political emancipation would lead to equality particularly in relation to economic sphere of property ownership
liberal feminists campaigned for end to discrimination in work place and belief in gender equality
an end to outdated cultural attitudes and opposition to sexist language
changes in law to facilitate legal equality in all public spheres
liberal feminism was criticised by radical feminists for its reluctance to analyse the private sphere of family life and by third wave feminists for its white middle class definition of feminism
What is socialist, reformist socialist and revolutionary socialist feminism
socialist - argues that economics leads to gender inequality and that capitalism causes patriarchy
different strands of the have different views
reformist - Charlotte Perkins Gilman was advocate of socialist feminism viewing collectivism and cooperation as female qualities.
believed capitalism exploitative tendencies reinforced patriarchy and that socialism would gradually succeed, allowing men and women to coexist in egalitarian society and economy.
revolutionary - Friedrich engels was the first to argue that economics caused gender inequality and capitalism created patriarchy
he argued that capitalism altered pre- existing societal structures which mean that women were needed as unpaid helpers to enable male workers.
he argued that women were complicit both in reproducing the workforce and in socialising their children to continuing the cycle of capitalistic oppression
Rowbotham expanded on this and that womens alienation from capitalism and patriarchy meant that there needed to be a ‘revolution within a revolution’ to destroy capitalism and patriarchy
de Beauvoir argued that society becoming addicted to buying consumer goods (consumptive materialism) inherent with capitalism had weakened womens position in society
Juliet Mitchell argued that even the destruction of capitalism may not be enough to end patriarchy - argues for social functions women need to liberate themselves from
role In workforce
childbearing role
socialisation of children
societal position as sex objects
she therefore adds a cultural aspects to the economic arguments of socialist feminism
who is sheila Rowbotham
wrote ‘womens consciousness, mans world’
capitalism - influenced by Marx and engals. believed capitalism worsened the oppression of women , forcing them to sell their labour to survive in workplace and to cede there labour to the family home
family - stresses that family performs a dual function - to subject and discipline women to the demands of capitalism and to offer a place of refuge for men from the alienation of capitalism
what is radical feminism
while liberal focuses on the public sphere, radical argues that both the public and private spheres must be addressed as the personal is political
Kate millets ‘sexual politics’
she was critical of romantic love and monogamous marriage ( as aspects of patriarchy) and argued that children were socialised via the family unit and that these norms were reinforced by religion education art ect
her solution was abolishing the nuclear family and replacing it with communal living and child rearing
what is post feminism and postmodern feminism
post feminism - writings in 1980 and 1990 argued that most feminist goals have been reached and that women should move on
Camille pagila - criticised feminism for portraying women as ‘victims’ and argued that women needed to take responsibility for their own life and sexual conduct
postmodern feminism - (4th wave) - rejects broad generalisations inherent within earlier feminist traditions - there are numerous factors aswell as gender as intersectionality demonstrates
what is cyber patriarchy
kira cochrane argues that technology is a source of patriarchy and is intersectional
diane abbott received more twitter abuse than any other mp in the 2017 general election - ‘its highly radicalised and its also gendered because people talk about rape and they talk about my physical appearance in a way they wouldn’t talk about a man’
great British bake off winner Nadia Hussain received intersectional discrimination online that had 3 overlapping forms of oppression gender, race and religion
to what extent do feminists agree over the concept of patriarchy
agreement
most feminists are equality feminists and use the term ‘patriarchy’ to define a society that is dominated by men and seeks to oppress women
gilman and de Beauvoir were among the first to identify gender stereotyping and feminists such as Freidan and millet explicitly defined patriarchy as a cultural and not biological phenomenon
there is agreement among equality feminists that patriarchy is not a static concept
majority of equality feminists agree that patriarchy must be opposed in the public sphere of society
disagreement
liberal and radicals disagree on where to challenge patriarchy. liberals prefer the public sphere of society, while radicals argue that patriarchy must be challenged in both public and Private spheres
liberal feminists believe state, society and economy can be reformed of patriarchal tendencies, while radicals argue there must be revolutionary change
post feminists argued that most feminist goals have been reached and that patriarchy has largely been defeated
postmodern feminists argue that patriarchy is far more complicated than liberal, radical or socialist feminism suggests because of intersectionality
key thinkers ideas on the key themes
Charlotte Perkins gilman-
human nature - women are equal to men and biological differences are irrelevant
state-
society - women have historically been assigned inferior roles in society
economy- men dominate the Economy because societal norms obligate women to a domestic role
Simone de Beauvoir -
human nature- gender differences are not natural but the creation of men
state- reinforces a male dominated culture which limits womens freedom
society - societal norms restrain both men and women from achieving self - realisation and true freedom of expression
economy - men dominate economic life which limits the life choices open to women
Kate millett -
human nature - women are oppressed by men (patriarchy) and should free themselves by engaging in lesbian relationships
state- facilitates patriarchy
society - is patriarchal in both public and private spheres
economy - resemble socialism
Sheila Rowbotham -
human nature - female consciousness is socially constructed by men
state - facilitates capitalism which in turn oppresses women
society - capitalist society reinforces the dominance of establishment males to the detriment of women
economy - womens main role in the economy is to provide a reserve army of labour
bell hooks -
human nature - women have multiple identities and therefore experience multiple forms of oppression
state - white men dominate the state at the expense of women
society - Society is multifaceted between different minority groups. women who are of lower class and of racial minority are oppressed on several levels
economy - women face different levels or oppression. for example white middle class women face oppression but are more liberated than black working class women
