Female Reproduction (ch.28) Flashcards
1
Q
What are ovaries?
A
Paired glands similar in size/shape to almonds that produce eggs and hormones; female equivalent to testes
2
Q
What are the two main functions of ovaries?
A
- Produce eggs (gametes)
- Produce hormones (progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, relaxin)
3
Q
Name the three ligaments that support the ovaries
A
- Broad ligament
- Ovarian ligament
- Suspensory ligament
4
Q
What is the broad ligament?
A
A fold of tissue (parietal peritoneum) that supports the ovaries
5
Q
What is the ovarian ligament’s function?
A
Anchors ovaries to the uterus
6
Q
What is the suspensory ligament’s function?
A
Attaches ovaries to the pelvic wall
7
Q
What is the hilum?
A
The point where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit the ovary
8
Q
Where are ovaries located?
A
One on either side of the uterus in the pelvic cavity
9
Q
What does ‘homologous to testes’ mean?
A
Ovaries and testes share the same embryonic origin
10
Q
What hormones do ovaries produce?
A
Progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, and relaxin
11
Q
What is the Ovarian Mesothelium?
A
A simple layer of low cuboidal or squamous cells covering the ovary.
12
Q
What is the Tunica Albuginea?
A
A dense whitish connective tissue layer beneath the ovarian mesothelium.
13
Q
Where is the Ovarian Cortex located?
A
Located under the tunica albuginea.
14
Q
What does the Ovarian Cortex contain?
A
Contains ovarian follicles surrounded by connective tissue (collagen and stromal cells).
15
Q
What is the Ovarian Medulla?
A
Found beneath the cortex and contains loose connective tissue, along with blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
16
Q
How is the border between the cortex and medulla described?
A
The border between the cortex and medulla is unclear.
17
Q
What are ovarian follicles?
A
Ovarian follicles are found in the cortex and contain oocytes (immature eggs) in different development stages.
18
Q
What are follicular cells?
A
Follicular cells are a single layer surrounding the oocyte.
19
Q
What are granulosa cells?
A
Granulosa cells are several layers surrounding the oocyte, which develop later.
20
Q
What is the function of follicular and granulosa cells?
A
They nourish the oocyte and secrete estrogens as the follicle grows.
21
Q
What is a mature follicle?
A
A mature follicle, or Graafian follicle, is a large, fluid-filled follicle ready to release the secondary oocyte during ovulation.
22
Q
What happens to the follicle after ovulation?
A
After ovulation, the follicle becomes the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin.
23
Q
What is the corpus albicans?
A
The corpus albicans, or ‘white body’, is scar tissue that forms when the corpus luteum degenerates.
24
Q
What is oogenesis?
A
Oogenesis is the process of forming gametes (eggs) in the ovaries. Unlike males, it begins before birth in females.
25
How does oogenesis start?
Oogenesis starts in the fetal stage when primordial germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the ovaries.
26
What are oogonia?
Oogonia are stem cells that are diploid (2n) and divide by mitosis to make germ cells.
27
What happens to some oogonia?
Some oogonia develop into primary oocytes.
28
What are primary oocytes?
Primary oocytes start meiosis I but stop at prophase until puberty.
29
What are primordial follicles?
A primary oocyte surrounded by one layer of flat follicular cells forms a primordial ovarian follicle.
30
When does oogenesis pause?
Oogenesis pauses in development until puberty.
31
What encases primary oocytes?
Primary oocytes are encased in primordial follicles for later maturation.
32
What hormones stimulate the development of primordial follicles each month after puberty?
FSH and LH
33
What happens to a few primordial follicles each month?
They start to grow, developing into primary follicles.
34
How many primary follicles usually reach maturity?
Usually only one reaches maturity.
35
What surrounds the primary oocyte in later stages of development?
Several layers of granulosa cells.
36
What forms between the primary oocyte and the granulosa cells?
The glycoprotein zona pellucida.
37
What does the primary follicle develop into as maturation continues?
A secondary follicle.
38
What forms from stromal cells surrounding the basement membrane?
Theca folliculi.
39
What marks the transition from primary follicle to secondary follicle?
The primary follicle matures into a secondary follicle through structural and cellular changes to support the growing primary oocyte.
40
What are the two layers of theca folliculi?
Theca interna and theca externa.
41
What is the function of the theca interna?
It is a vascularized inner layer composed of secretory cells that produce androgens, which are converted into estrogens by granulosa cells.
42
What is the role of the theca externa?
It provides structural support to the follicle and consists of stromal cells and collagen fibers.
43
What is the corona radiata?
The innermost layer of granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte, which attaches firmly to the zona pellucida.
44
What is the function of the corona radiata?
It provides nutrients and protection to the oocyte.
45
What is the antrum?
A large cavity formed by the accumulation of follicular fluid secreted by granulosa cells.
46
What is a mature (Graafian) follicle?
It is a secondary follicle that has grown larger and is prepared for ovulation.
47
What surrounds the oocyte and separates it from granulosa cells?
The zona pellucida.
48
What is the significance of blood vessels in the theca interna?
They provide nutrients and hormonal support for follicular growth.
49
Why is the development of the Graafian follicle important?
It is vital for ovulation and contributes to the ovarian cycle and reproductive function.
50
What completes just before ovulation?
The primary oocyte completes its first division, meiosis I, just before ovulation.
51
What are the products of meiosis I?
A large secondary oocyte and a small polar body.
52
What happens to the cytoplasm during meiosis I?
The large secondary oocyte gets most of the cytoplasm, while the polar body has minimal cytoplasm.
53
How many chromosomes do the secondary oocyte and polar body have?
Both have 23 duplicated chromosomes (haploid).
54
What initiates meiosis II?
The secondary oocyte begins meiosis II.
55
When does meiosis II stop?
It stops at metaphase and only continues if fertilization occurs.
56
What is ovulation?
The mature follicle ruptures to release the secondary oocyte into the fallopian tube.
57
What happens to the secondary oocyte during ovulation?
The secondary oocyte is released and its development pauses until fertilization.
58
What happens at ovulation?
Both cells and the corona radiata are expelled into the pelvic cavity and enter the uterine tube.
59
What occurs if no sperm are present after ovulation?
The cells degenerate.
60
What happens if sperm are present at ovulation?
The secondary oocyte continues into meiosis II.
61
How does the secondary oocyte divide during meiosis II?
It splits unevenly and forms an ovum (larger) and a second polar body.
62
When does the ovum become a zygote?
The ovum becomes a zygote when it unites with the sperm.
63
How many gametes does one primary oocyte give rise to?
One primary oocyte gives rise to a single gamete (an ovum).
64
What are oogonia?
Oogonia are stem cells that undergo mitosis to create primary oocytes.
65
What happens to primary oocytes before puberty?
Primary oocytes start meiosis I but stop in prophase until puberty.
66
What occurs each month after puberty regarding primary oocytes?
Each month, a primary oocyte completes meiosis I, forming a secondary oocyte and a first polar body.
67
What is a secondary oocyte?
A secondary oocyte is larger and contains most of the cytoplasm.
68
What happens during ovulation?
The secondary oocyte and first polar body are released.
69
What stage does the secondary oocyte stop at during ovulation?
The secondary oocyte stops at meiosis II metaphase, waiting for fertilization.
70
What occurs if fertilization happens?
The sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte, and meiosis II resumes, forming a mature ovum and a second polar body.
71
What is a mature ovum?
A mature ovum is large and ready for zygote formation.
72
What happens during zygote formation?
The nucleus of the ovum fuses with the sperm nucleus, forming a diploid zygote (2n).
73
What is the outcome of one primary oocyte?
From one primary oocyte, only one ovum and polar bodies (which degenerate) are formed.
74
What is the key takeaway from the ovum development process?
The process starts in the fetus, pauses until puberty, and completes only after fertilization.
75
What are uterine tubes?
Also called fallopian tubes or oviducts. Two tubes, each about 10 cm (4 in.) long, extend from the uterus to the ovaries.
76
What is the function of the uterine tubes?
Provide a path for sperm to reach the egg and transport secondary oocytes or fertilized ova to the uterus.
77
What is the infundibulum?
Funnel-shaped end of the tube near the ovary, open to the pelvic cavity. Contains fingerlike projections called fimbriae, which help sweep the egg into the tube.
78
What is the ampulla?
Longest and widest portion of the tube, where fertilization usually occurs.
79
What is the isthmus?
Narrow, short part of the tube that connects to the uterus.
80
What is the summary of the uterine tubes' function?
The uterine tubes serve as the pathway for the egg, sperm, and fertilized egg, with different sections specialized for their transport or fertilization.
81
What are the three layers of the uterine tube (from inner to outer)?
1. Mucosa
2. Muscular layer
3. Serosa
82
What are the two types of cells in the mucosa?
1. Ciliated columnar cells
2. Peg cells (non-ciliated)
83
What is the function of ciliated cells?
They create a "ciliary conveyor belt" to move the egg/fertilized ovum toward the uterus
84
What is the function of peg cells?
They secrete fluid that provides nutrition for the egg/fertilized ovum
85
What are the two muscle types in the muscular layer?
1. Inner circular smooth muscle
2. Outer longitudinal smooth muscle
86
How does the egg move through the uterine tube?
Through combination of:
1. Ciliary action
2. Peristaltic muscle contractions
87
What is the serosa?
The outer protective layer made of visceral peritoneum
88
What happens to a fertilized ovum?
It becomes a zygote (diploid) and moves toward the uterus
89
What are the two main functions of the uterine tube?
1. Pathway for sperm to reach egg
2. Transport of egg/fertilized ovum to uterus
90
Where does fertilization typically occur in the uterine tube?
In the ampulla (widest part of the tube)
91
What is the function of the uterus?
The uterus helps transport sperm from the vagina to the uterine tube and is the place where a fertilized egg implants and grows during pregnancy.
92
What are the main parts of the uterus?
The main parts of the uterus are the fundus, body, cervix, and isthmus.
93
What is the fundus of the uterus?
The fundus is the rounded top part of the uterus.
94
What is the body of the uterus?
The body is the central/main portion of the uterus.
95
What is the cervix of the uterus?
The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that opens into the vagina.
96
What is the isthmus of the uterus?
The isthmus is a narrow area between the body and cervix.
97
What is the uterine cavity?
The uterine cavity is the space inside the body of the uterus where the baby develops during pregnancy.
98
What is the cervical canal?
The cervical canal is the passage inside the cervix that connects the uterine cavity to the vagina.
99
What is the summary of the uterus's role?
The uterus is a vital organ that supports reproduction, serving as a pathway for sperm, a site for egg implantation, and the space for fetal development.
100
What is the internal os?
The opening where the cervical canal connects to the uterus
101
What is the external os?
The opening where the cervical canal connects to the vagina
102
What is the main function of uterine ligaments?
To maintain the position of the uterus while allowing some movement
103
What do broad ligaments do?
Attach the uterus to the sides of the pelvic cavity
104
What do uterosacral ligaments do?
Connect the uterus to the sacrum (lower back)
105
What is the role of cardinal and round ligaments?
Provide additional anchoring and support for the uterus
106
What are the four main ligaments that support the uterus?
1. Broad ligaments
2. Uterosacral ligaments
3. Cardinal ligaments
4. Round ligaments
107
What are uterine ligaments made of?
Extensions of parietal peritoneum or fibromuscular cords
108
Why do uterine ligaments need to allow movement?
To accommodate normal body movements and changes during pregnancy
109
What connects the uterine cavity to the vagina?
The cervical canal, through the internal and external os
110
What are the three layers of the uterus?
The three layers of the uterus are the perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium.
111
What is the perimetrium?
The perimetrium (serosa) is the outermost layer of the uterus.
## Footnote
Laterally, it becomes the broad ligament.
112
What is the myometrium?
The myometrium is the middle layer of the uterus, consisting of three layers of smooth muscle.
## Footnote
The thicker middle layer is circular, while the inner and outer layers are longitudinal or oblique.
113
What is the endometrium?
The endometrium is the inner layer of the uterus.
## Footnote
Its stratum functionalis layer is shed each month during menstruation, while the stratum basalis layer is permanent and gives rise to a new stratum functionalis after each menstruation.
114
What supplies blood to the uterus?
Branches of the internal iliac artery called uterine arteries supply blood to the uterus.
115
What do uterine arteries give rise to?
Uterine arteries give rise to arcuate arteries that feed the myometrium.
116
What do arcuate arteries branch into?
These branch into radial arteries that go deep into the myometrium.
117
What supplies the stratum basalis?
Straight arterioles supply the stratum basalis with materials to regenerate the stratum functionalis.
118
What supplies the stratum functionalis?
Spiral arterioles supply the stratum functionalis and change markedly during the menstrual cycle.
119
How does blood leave the uterus?
Blood leaving the uterus exits through uterine veins and into iliac veins.
120
What do secretory cells of the cervix produce?
Cervical mucus.
121
How does cervical mucus change during ovulation?
It becomes less thick (less viscous) and more alkaline.
122
What is the purpose of cervical mucus during ovulation?
It creates a favorable environment for sperm survival and movement.
123
What additional role does cervical mucus play during ovulation?
It nourishes the sperm, helping them stay viable for fertilization.
124
What happens to cervical mucus in less fertile phases?
It becomes more viscous, forming a cervical plug to block sperm.
125
What is the function of the cervical plug?
It protects against infections.
126
How does cervical mucus assist in capacitation?
It helps sperm undergo changes needed to fertilize the oocyte.
127
What changes occur in sperm during capacitation?
Faster tail movement and the ability to fuse with an egg.
128
Why are changes in cervical mucus important during ovulation?
They ensure sperm have the best chance to reach and fertilize the egg.
129
What is the vagina?
A fibromuscular canal lined with mucous that extends from the body’s exterior to the cervix.
130
How is the mucosa of the vagina related to the uterus?
The mucosa of the vagina is continuous with that of the uterus.
131
What are rugae in the vagina?
The epithelium and areolar connective tissue of the vagina which lie in a series of transverse folds.
132
What does the vaginal mucosa contain that helps protect against infections?
The vaginal mucosa contains large amounts of glycogen, which breaks down into acids that create an antimicrobial environment.
133
What are the two smooth muscle layers of the vaginal muscularis?
The muscularis layer of the vagina has an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer.
134
What is the function of the smooth muscle layers in the vagina?
These layers allow the vagina to stretch during intercourse and childbirth.
135
What is the hymen?
The hymen is a thin, vascularized mucous membrane that partly covers the vagina's lower opening.
136
How can the hymen be affected?
The hymen may stretch or tear during activities like intercourse, exercise, or childbirth.
137
What is the vulva?
External female genitalia that includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vestibule
138
What is the mons pubis?
Fatty tissue pad covered with skin and pubic hair that protects the pubic bone
139
What are labia majora?
Outer folds of skin with hair, fat, and glands; similar to male scrotum
140
What are labia minora?
Inner, hairless folds with lubricating glands; corresponds to male spongy urethra
141
What is the clitoris?
Erectile tissue rich in nerves and blood vessels; involved in sexual arousal; similar to male glans penis
142
What is the vestibule?
Area between labia minora containing vaginal opening, urethral opening, and gland openings
143
What are Skene's glands?
Mucus-secreting glands near urethra; similar to male prostate
144
What are Bartholin's glands?
Glands near vaginal opening that produce lubricating mucus during arousal; similar to male bulbourethral glands
145
What is the hymen?
Thin tissue membrane that partially covers vaginal opening
146
What's the function of vestibular glands?
Produce mucus for lubrication during sexual arousal and intercourse
147
What do paraurethral (Skene’s) glands secrete?
They secrete mucous and are embedded in the wall of the urethra.
## Footnote
They are homologous to the prostate.
148
What do greater vestibular (Bartholin’s) glands produce?
They produce mucous during sexual arousal to provide lubrication.
## Footnote
They are homologous to the bulbourethral gland.
149
What is the function of the bulb of the vestibule?
It has two masses of erectile tissue that engorge during sexual arousal to narrow the vaginal orifice applying pressure to the penis during intercourse.
## Footnote
It is homologous to the erectile tissues of the penis.
150
What are mammary glands?
Mammary glands are modified sudoriferous glands that produce milk.
151
Where are mammary glands located?
Mammary glands are located in each of the two breasts.
152
How many lobes do mammary glands contain?
Mammary glands contain 15–30 lobes.
153
What do lobes in mammary glands contain?
Each lobe has lobules containing milk secreting glands called alveoli.
154
What is the function of the nipple in the breast?
Each breast has a nipple containing lactiferous ducts where milk emerges.
155
What is the areola?
The skin around the nipple is the areola.
156
What cyclical changes do non-pregnant females experience?
Non-pregnant females experience cyclical changes in the ovaries and uterus lasting approximately one month.
157
What does the female reproductive cycle involve?
The female reproductive cycle encompasses both ovarian and uterine cycles as well as hormonal changes that regulate them.
158
What is oogenesis?
Oogenesis is the process involved in the ovarian cycle that includes changes occurring during and after maturation of the oocyte.
159
What does the uterine cycle prepare for?
The uterine cycle involves changes in the endometrium that prepare it for implantation of the developing embryo.
160
What are the two main cycles in the female reproductive cycle?
The two main cycles are the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle.
161
What does GnRH do?
Released by hypothalamus to stimulate anterior pituitary to produce FSH and LH
162
What is FSH's main function?
Stimulates initial growth and development of ovarian follicles
163
What is LH's main function?
Triggers ovulation and helps form corpus luteum
164
What does the corpus luteum produce?
Progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin
165
List 3 main functions of estrogen:
Promotes female reproductive development
Stimulates uterine lining growth
Controls secondary sex characteristics
166
What is inhibin's role?
Inhibits FSH release from anterior pituitary
167
What does relaxin do?
Prevents uterine contractions and helps dilate cervix during labor
168
What are progesterone's main functions?
Prepares uterus for implantation
Stimulates nutrient secretion for fertilized egg
Inhibits GnRH, FSH, and LH at high levels
169
How is the cycle regulated?
Through negative feedback loops where hormones inhibit hypothalamus and pituitary
170
What triggers ovulation?
A surge in LH levels
171
What forms after ovulation?
Corpus luteum forms from the ruptured follicle
172
How do hormones provide feedback control?
Estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin create negative feedback to hypothalamus and pituitary to maintain balance
173
How long is a typical female reproductive cycle?
24-36 days
174
What are the 4 main phases of the cycle?
Menstrual, Preovulatory, Ovulation, and Postovulatory phases
175
What happens during the Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5)?
Uterine lining is shed (menstruation)
Hormone levels drop
Secondary follicles begin developing
176
What occurs in the Preovulatory Phase?
One follicle becomes dominant
Other follicles stop growing
Uterine lining repairs and thickens
Estrogen levels increase
177
What happens during Ovulation?
Mature follicle ruptures
Egg is released into fallopian tube
Triggered by LH surge
178
What characterizes the Postovulatory Phase?
Period between ovulation and next menstruation
Corpus luteum forms from ruptured follicle
Progesterone prepares uterus for possible pregnancy
If no pregnancy, hormone levels drop and cycle restarts
179
What triggers ovulation?
A surge in Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
180
What forms after the follicle releases the egg?
The corpus luteum
181
What happens during Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5)?
Uterine lining sheds, hormone levels low except FSH, secondary follicles begin developing, menstrual flow occurs
182
What causes menstruation?
Drop in estrogen and progesterone levels causes uterine lining to break down and shed
183
What occurs in Preovulatory Phase (Days 6-13)?
Secondary follicles produce estrogen and inhibin, one follicle becomes dominant, FSH decreases due to inhibin, estrogen levels rise, uterine lining begins to repair
184
What triggers ovulation (Day 14)?
High estrogen levels create positive feedback, causing surge in LH and FSH, which triggers egg release
185
What happens after ovulation?
Ruptured follicle becomes corpus luteum, produces progesterone and some estrogen, maintains uterine lining, prepares for possible pregnancy
186
What happens if fertilization occurs?
Endometrium produces progesterone, hormone levels stay high, no menstruation occurs, pregnancy begins
187
What happens if no fertilization occurs?
Corpus luteum degenerates, hormone levels drop, uterine lining sheds, new cycle begins
188
What is the role of inhibin?
Decreases FSH production to ensure only one follicle fully matures
189
What happens during the late preovulatory phase?
Maturing follicle produces high levels of estrogen
190
What effect does high estrogen have on the hypothalamus and pituitary?
Creates positive feedback, stimulating release of GnRH and LH
191
What does GnRH do?
Promotes the release of FSH and especially LH from the anterior pituitary
192
What is the LH surge?
A sudden increase in LH levels that triggers ovulation
193
What happens during ovulation?
The mature follicle ruptures and releases the egg (secondary oocyte) into the fallopian tube
194
What is the corpus hemorrhagicum?
The ruptured follicle immediately after ovulation, before it becomes the corpus luteum
195
What is the positive feedback loop in ovulation?
High estrogen → increased GnRH → increased LH → ovulation
196
Where does the egg go after being released?
Into the fallopian tube, where it can be fertilized
197
What happens to female fertility between ages 30-40?
Ovarian follicles become depleted, estrogen levels drop, fertility significantly decreases, and egg quality declines.
198
How long can men remain fertile?
Into their 80s or 90s, though with reduced fertility.
199
What changes occur in men around age 55?
Testosterone levels decrease, sperm production drops, and sexual desire decreases.
200
What is benign prostatic hypertrophy?
Enlargement of prostate gland to 2-4 times normal size, common in men over 60.
201
How do fertility changes differ between men and women?
Women experience a sharp decline in fertility in their 30s-40s, leading to menopause, while men have a gradual decline starting later (55+).
202
When do reproductive aging changes typically begin?
Women: 30-40 years; Men: 55+ years.
203
What happens to sperm production with age?
Gradually decreases but doesn't completely stop.
