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Kin 268 (phys. 2) > Chapter 15 & 16 (nervous sys): part 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 15 & 16 (nervous sys): part 2 Flashcards

nervous system

1
Q

Where are Alpha 1 Receptors (α1) found?

A

In the smooth muscle of blood vessels supplying salivary glands, skin, mucosal membranes, kidneys, abdominal organs, and sphincters of the stomach and urinary bladder. Also found in salivary glands and sweat glands (palms and soles).

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2
Q

What do Alpha 1 Receptors (α1) do?

A

Cause excitation (contraction) leading to vasoconstriction, closing sphincters, triggering salivary secretion, and increasing sweating on palms and soles.

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3
Q

Where are Alpha 2 Receptors (α2) found?

A

In smooth muscle of certain blood vessels, pancreatic cells, and platelets of the blood.

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4
Q

What do Alpha 2 Receptors (α2) do?

A

Cause inhibition (relaxation) leading to vasodilation, reduced insulin and digestive hormone secretion, and promote platelet aggregation.

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5
Q

What is the summary of Alpha 1 and Alpha 2 Receptors?

A

Alpha 1 Receptors cause excitation like vasoconstriction, closing sphincters, salivary secretion, and increased sweating. Alpha 2 Receptors cause inhibition like vasodilation, reduced insulin and digestive hormone secretion, and aid in blood clotting.

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6
Q

Where are Beta 1 Receptors (β1) found?

A

In cardiac muscle fibers, kidneys, posterior pituitary gland, and adipose cells.

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7
Q

What is the function of Beta 1 Receptors in cardiac muscle fibers?

A

They cause excitation by increasing the force and rate of heart contractions, boosting blood circulation during activities or stress.

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8
Q

What do Beta 1 Receptors stimulate in the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidneys?

A

They stimulate the release of renin, a hormone that helps regulate blood pressure.

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9
Q

What is the role of Beta 1 Receptors in the posterior pituitary gland?

A

They trigger the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which helps retain water in the body to maintain blood volume.

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10
Q

What do Beta 1 Receptors do in adipose cells?

A

They stimulate the breakdown of triglycerides, releasing fatty acids into the blood for energy.

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11
Q

Where are Beta 2 Receptors (β2) found?

A

In the smooth muscle of airways, blood vessels, visceral organs, ciliary muscles of the eye, and hepatocytes in the liver.

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12
Q

What is the function of Beta 2 Receptors in smooth muscle?

A

They cause inhibition through relaxation, resulting in airway dilation and vasodilation.

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13
Q

What do Beta 2 Receptors do in the ciliary muscles of the eye?

A

They cause inhibition (relaxation), which helps in focusing vision.

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14
Q

What is the role of Beta 2 Receptors in hepatocytes in the liver?

A

They stimulate glycogenolysis, breaking down stored glycogen into glucose and releasing it into the blood for quick energy.

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15
Q

What are the main functions of Beta 1 Receptors?

A

They excite or stimulate activities like increasing heart contractions, releasing renin, secreting ADH, and breaking down fat for energy.

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16
Q

What are the main functions of Beta 2 Receptors?

A

They cause inhibition by relaxing smooth muscles (e.g., dilating airways and blood vessels) or breaking down glycogen for energy.

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17
Q

What dominates during times of physical or emotional stress?

A

Sympathetic responses dominate during times of physical or emotional stress (e.g. fear, embarrassment, rage).

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18
Q

What does a high sympathetic tone favor?

A

A high sympathetic tone favors body functions that can support vigorous physical activity and rapid production of ATP.

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19
Q

What does sympathetic activation reduce?

A

It reduces body functions that favor the storage of energy.

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20
Q

What are ‘E’ situations?

A

‘E’ situations include exercise, emergency, excitement, and embarrassment.

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21
Q

How do sympathetic responses compare to parasympathetic responses?

A

Sympathetic responses are longer lasting and more widespread than parasympathetic responses.

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22
Q

What is the characteristic of sympathetic postganglionic neurons?

A

Sympathetic postganglionic neurons diverge.

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23
Q

What rapidly inactivates ACh?

A

Acetylcholinesterase rapidly inactivates ACh.

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24
Q

What hormones are secreted from the adrenal medulla?

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted into blood from the adrenal medulla to prolong and intensify responses of norepinephrine.

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25
What does sympathetic stimulation lead to regarding norepinephrine?
Secretion of norepinephrine by the adrenal glands
26
How does sympathetic stimulation affect the heartbeat?
It increases the rate and strength of the heartbeat
27
What happens to blood vessels of non-essential organs during sympathetic stimulation?
They constrict
28
What happens to blood vessels of essential organs during sympathetic stimulation?
They dilate (specifically in skeletal muscle and the cerebral cortex)
29
How does sympathetic stimulation affect breathing?
It increases the rate and depth of breathing
30
What metabolic change occurs due to sympathetic stimulation?
Conversion of glycogen to glucose
31
What effect does sympathetic stimulation have on gastrointestinal activity?
It decreases GI activity
32
What is sensation?
Sensation is the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environment.
33
How do types of sensation and reaction vary?
They vary according to the destination of nerve impulses (action potentials) that convey sensory information to the CNS.
34
What is integration in the context of sensation?
Integration is the process where each piece of incoming information is combined with other arriving and previously stored information.
35
What happens when sensory impulses reach the cerebral cortex?
We become consciously aware of the stimuli and can precisely locate and identify specific sensations such as touch, pain, hearing, or taste.
36
What is perception?
Perception is the conscious interpretation of sensation.
37
Why do we have no perception of some sensory information?
Because it never reaches the cerebral cortex, where our interpretation of sensation occurs.
38
Can you provide an example of sensory information that is sensed but not consciously perceived?
Sensory receptors monitor blood pressure in vessels; information is transferred to the cardiovascular center instead of the cerebral cortex, so blood pressure is sensed but not consciously perceived.
39
What is a sensory modality?
Each unique type of sensation (such as touch, taste, or hearing) is called a sensory modality.
40
What does a sensory neuron do?
A sensory neuron carries information for only one of these modalities.
41
What are the types of sensory modalities?
Sensory modalities are divided into general senses and special senses.
42
What are general senses?
General senses include both somatic and visceral sensations.
43
What are somatic senses?
Somatic senses include tactile sensations, thermal sensations, pain sensations, and proprioception.
44
What are tactile sensations?
Tactile sensations include touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle.
45
What are thermal sensations?
Thermal sensations refer to sensations of warm and cold.
46
What are pain sensations?
Pain sensations are the experience of pain through various stimuli.
47
What is proprioception?
Proprioception is the awareness of limb and joint position in space.
48
What are visceral senses?
Visceral senses provide information about the conditions within internal organs.
49
What are examples of visceral sensations?
Examples include sensation of internal pressure, chemical changes, stretch, nausea, hunger, and temperature.
50
What are special senses?
Special senses include more complex sensory systems such as smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium.
51
What does each sensory modality provide?
Each sensory modality gives the brain specific information about our external and internal environment.
52
What begins the process of sensation?
The process begins with a sensory receptor.
53
What can a sensory receptor be?
A receptor can be a specialized cell or the dendrites of a sensory neuron—the part that receives signals.
54
What triggers the activation of receptors?
A specific stimulus (a change in the environment) triggers certain receptors.
55
Do all receptors react equally to stimuli?
Not all receptors react equally; some respond strongly while others barely notice the change.
56
What is selectivity in the context of sensation?
Selectivity is the selective response of receptors to specific stimuli.
57
Why is selectivity important?
It ensures that each receptor specifically detects certain types of stimuli, allowing your brain to correctly interpret what's happening.
58
How does sensation start?
Sensation starts when a sensory receptor detects a stimulus.
59
What is the property of receptors that respond strongly to specific stimuli?
This property is known as selectivity.
60
What does selectivity help the brain do?
Selectivity helps your brain accurately process the information.
61
What is the first event that occurs for a sensation to arise?
Stimulation of the sensory receptor - an appropriate stimulus must occur within the receptor's receptive field.
62
What is the second event that occurs for a sensation to arise?
Transduction of the stimulus - a sensory receptor converts energy in a stimulus into a graded potential. ## Footnote Recall characteristics of graded potentials (vs. action potentials).
63
What is the third event that occurs for a sensation to arise?
Generation of nerve impulses – occurs when the sum of graded potentials reach threshold in first-order neurons.
64
What is the fourth event that occurs for a sensation to arise?
Integration of sensory input – occurs when a particular region of the CNS integrates a number (and even a variety) of sensory nerve impulses.
65
How can sensory receptors be grouped?
Sensory receptors can be grouped based on structural and functional characteristics.
66
What are the criteria for grouping sensory receptors?
The criteria include microscopic structure, location of the receptors, and the origin of the stimuli that activate them.
67
What type of stimulus can sensory receptors detect?
Sensory receptors can detect various types of stimuli.
68
What are free nerve endings?
Free nerve endings are first-order sensory neurons with bare dendrites and no structural specifications. ## Footnote They include sensations of pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch.
69
What are receptors named according to their microscopic structure?
Receptors are named according to their microscopic structure as encapsulated nerve endings of first-order sensory neurons, where dendrites are enclosed in a connective tissue capsule. ## Footnote These receptors include those for pressure, vibration, and some touch.
70
What are separate nerve cells that synapse with first-order sensory neurons?
They include specialized receptor cells for the special senses.
71
What are examples of specialized receptor cells for the special senses?
Taste buds, hair cells for hearing, and photoreceptors.
72
What are exteroceptors?
Exteroceptors are located at or near the external surface of the body and respond to external stimuli.
73
What are interoceptors (visceroceptors)?
Interoceptors are located in blood vessels, organs, and muscles, producing impulses that are usually not consciously perceived.
74
What are proprioceptors?
Proprioceptors are located in muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear, providing information about body position, muscle length and tension, and movement of joints.
75
What are mechanoreceptors sensitive to?
Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to deformation.
76
What do thermoreceptors detect?
Thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature.
77
What stimuli do nociceptors respond to?
Nociceptors respond to painful stimuli.
78
What activates photoreceptors?
Photoreceptors are activated by photons of light.
79
What do chemoreceptors detect?
Chemoreceptors detect chemicals in the mouth (taste), nose (smell), and body fluids.
80
What do osmoreceptors detect?
Osmoreceptors detect the osmotic pressure of body fluids.
81
What is Sensory Adaptation?
Adaptation is a feature of most sensory receptors, where they become less responsive during a sustained or constant stimulus. ## Footnote For example, you feel the pressure of a watch on your wrist initially, but the sensation fades over time even though it's still there.
82
How Does Adaptation Affect Perception?
Adaptation decreases the frequency of signals to the cerebral cortex, leading you to stop consciously noticing the sensation, even though the stimulus persists.
83
What are Rapidly Adapting Receptors?
Rapidly adapting receptors (Phasic receptors) adapt quickly and are specialized for detecting quick, dynamic changes in stimuli like vibration and pressure. ## Footnote Examples include Meissner’s corpuscles (detect light touch) and Pacinian corpuscles (detect high-frequency vibration).
84
What are Slowly Adapting Receptors?
Slowly adapting receptors (Tonic receptors) adapt slowly and emphasize prolonged, steady-state stimuli. ## Footnote Examples include pain receptors (nociceptors) and muscle spindles.
85
Why is Adaptation Important?
Adaptation prevents sensory overload and saves energy by reducing unnecessary nerve signaling, while maintaining awareness of important stimuli.
86
What is the summary of Sensory Adaptation?
Sensory adaptation is the process by which sensory receptor responses diminish during a constant stimulus. Receptors are classified into rapidly adapting receptors and slowly adapting receptors, helping the brain focus on critical sensory information.
87
What do somatic sensations arise from?
Somatic sensations arise from stimulation of sensory receptors.
88
How are receptors distributed in the body?
Receptors are distributed unevenly, with some areas densely populated and others having very few.
89
Where is the highest density of somatic sensory receptors found?
The highest density of somatic sensory receptors is found at the tip of the tongue, the lips, and the fingertips.
90
What are cutaneous sensations?
Cutaneous sensations are somatic sensations that arise from stimulating the skin surface.
91
What are the four modalities of somatic sensation?
The four modalities of somatic sensation are tactile, thermal, pain, and proprioception.
92
What are the two types of touch receptors?
Rapidly adapting (Meissner corpuscles and hair root plexuses) and slow adapting (Type 1 and Type 2 cutaneous mechanoreceptors)
93
How do pressure receptors function?
Slow adapting Type 1 and 2 mechanoreceptors sense pressure depending on which are activated.
94
What do Pacinian corpuscles detect?
High frequency vibration. ## Footnote They contain free nerve endings in a layered (onion slice-like) connective tissue.
95
What do corpuscles of touch respond to?
Low frequency vibrations.
96
What causes itch?
Chemical stimulation of free nerve endings, but the signal can be blocked by scratching.
97
What is known about tickle sensation?
It involves free nerve endings, but less is known about this sensation.
98
What are free nerve endings?
Free nerve endings are sensory receptors with receptive fields 1 mm in diameter on the skin surface.
99
What types of receptors are present in free nerve endings?
There are cold and warm receptors.
100
How do cold and warm receptors respond to stimuli?
Both adapt quickly at the onset of a stimulus but will continue to generate impulses at a lower frequency with prolonged stimulation.
101
What type of fibers are cold receptors attached to?
Cold receptors are attached to medium-diameter myelinated type A fibres.
102
What type of fibers are warm receptors attached to?
Warm receptors are less abundant and are attached to small-diameter unmyelinated type C fibres.
103
What happens to pain receptors at extreme temperatures?
Temperatures below 10 degrees Celsius and above 48 degrees Celsius stimulate pain receptors instead of thermal receptors.
104
What is the protective function of pain?
Pain serves a protective function and is indispensable for survival.
105
What are nociceptors?
Nociceptors are receptors for pain.
106
How are nociceptors activated?
Nociceptors are activated by tissue damage from intense thermal, mechanical, or chemical stimuli.
107
Where are nociceptors found in the body?
Nociceptors are found in every tissue of the body except the brain.
108
What are the two types of pain?
There are two types of pain: fast and slow.
109
What characterizes fast pain?
Fast pain (acute, well localized) occurs rapidly.
110
How do nerve impulses propagate for fast pain?
Nerve impulses for fast pain propagate along medium-diameter, myelinated A fibers.
111
What characterizes slow pain?
Slow pain begins after a stimulus is applied and gradually increases in intensity over several seconds or minutes.
112
How do nerve impulses propagate for slow pain?
Impulses for slow pain conduct along small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers.
113
What qualities can slow pain have?
Slow pain may be excruciating and often has a burning, aching, or throbbing quality.
114
What is superficial somatic pain?
Pain that arises from stimulation of receptors in the skin.
115
What causes deep somatic pain?
Stimulation of receptors in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons, and fascia.
116
What is visceral pain?
Pain that results from stimulation of nociceptors in visceral organs.
117
How can visceral pain be perceived?
In many instances, it is felt in or just deep to the skin that overlies the stimulated organ.
118
What is referred pain?
Visceral pain can also be felt on a surface area far from the stimulated organ.

Kin 268 (phys. 2) (17 decks)

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