Features of science

Question 1

Theory construction

Answer 1

A theory is a general law or principle that is used to explain something. Theory construction can happen in 2 ways: Inductive methods and Deductive methods.

Question 2

Inductive methods

Answer 2

A psychologist will gather evidence from direct experience or observations. Once a substantial amount of data has been collected, the psychologist will take a step back and look for patterns in the data. If patterns are identified, they will develop a theory that can explain the patterns.

Data - Patterns - Theory

Question 3

Deductive methods

Answer 3

A psychologist starts with a theory that interests them and then they test this theory with data. They set out to gather evidence to support or challenge their theory. This method is most typically associated with scientific (and psychological) investigations. Psychologists look at previous research and theory and then test the hypotheses from those theories.

Theory - Analyse data - Accept/ reject hypothesis.

Question 4

Hypothesis testing

Answer 4

• An important feature of theories is they can be tested in a scientific way.
• Every theory should have both a null hypothesis (a statement of no effect) and an alternative hypothesis (a statement of effect). Psychological research can be carried out to support or challenge these hypotheses and then one of these hypotheses is accepted and one is rejected.
• If the alternative hypothesis is supported, then the theory is strengthened, but if it is rejected in favour of the null hypothesis, the theory will need to be revisited or revised.
• The process of developing a new hypothesis from an existing hypothesis is called deduction.

Question 5

Empirical method

Answer 5

• Empirical means that data must be collected through direct observations or experiments.
• Empirical research would not be based on arguments or opinion, and it must have tangible evidence to support it. Experiments and observations are carried out to support and verify theories.
• Research and theory that is not based on empirical methods or supported by empirical data is not scientific.

Question 6

Replicability

Answer 6

• This refers to whether a research method and its findings can be repeated. If a study is replicable and the results are the same each time they are tested under the same conditions, then we can be sure of their reliability.
• This gives us confidence that the results are valid and can be used to build up our understanding, to draw conclusions or develop a theory.
• Replicability is an important part of the scientific process. Unrepeatable studies and studies that produce different results under the same conditions may have issues with the methodology; there may be a lack of control or flaws in the methods used. These studies are of limited use in theory construction and in contributing to our understanding.

Question 7

Objectivity

Answer 7

• Psychologists should try to be unbiased in their investigations, their personal feelings and experiences should have no influence on the outcomes of their research.
• Objectivity means that all sources of bias are minimised and that personal or subjective ideas are eliminated.
• Research methods such as lab experiments are argued to be the most objective. There are also techniques such as single-blind and double-blind tests that can be used to increase objectivity by reducing the chances of bias.
• Research and theory that is subjective is not scientific.

Question 8

Falsification (pt.1)

Answer 8

• Works by finding evidence that disproves theories. Theories that survive most attempts to falsify (disprove), tend to become the strongest or most convincing theories, not because they are necessarily true, but because despite the best efforts of researchers, they have not been proven false.
• Falsification is a process that believes that in order to be more scientific, you should not always look for evidence and examples that fit your theory, but you should look for things that don’t!

Question 9

Falsification (pt.2)

Answer 9

• Falsification is the only way to be certain.
• Not all theories can be falsified. If a theory is based on abstract concepts (ones that are not ‘concrete’) they cannot be falsified and are not scientific.

Question 10

Paradigm (pt.1)

Answer 10

• A paradigm consists of the shared set of basic assumptions, ways of thinking, and methods of study tat are commonly accepted by members of a discipline or group. Sciences such as biology, or physics have a number of principles at their core, for example biology have their evolutionary theory and physics have their standard model of the universe.

Question 11

Paradigm (pt.2)

Answer 11

• Psychology on the other hand has many overlaps and disagreements. For example, the biological and behavioural approaches are completely opposing and because of conflicts such as this, it is argued that psychology is not a ‘pure’ science. However, each branch of psychology is based on a set of paradigms, for example, biological psychologists believe that everything psychological has a physical basis.

Question 12

Paradigm shifts (pt.1)

Answer 12

• A paradigm shift occurs when the old paradigm does not have enough sufficient evidence to be believed by the majority of people &/ or a new belief is put forward that better reflects reality than the old paradigm.
• One example is that in cognitive psychology there used to be the agreed belief that the mind and the brain are separate entities. However, the development of neuroscience created a shift in this belief, and now amongst psychologists it is agreed that the mind and brain are connected.

Question 13

Paradigm shifts (pt.2)

Answer 13

• Another example is that there use to be a belief that nature and nurture should be studied separately, however, it is not the more common belief to assume that nature and nurture cannot be separated. The interactionist approach was developed to highlight this new belief. For example, biological psychologists who study genetic influences on mental health now consider the effect of environmental factors.