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Fats and Oils Flashcards

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1
Q
  • Loosely defined term for substances of biological origin that are soluble in nonpolar solvents
  • Consist of saponifiable lipids (such as glycerides), phospholipids, and nonsaponifiable lipids (steroids)
A

Lipid IUPAC Definition

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2
Q
  • A statement of the number of grams of total fat in a serving defined as total lipid fatty acids and expressed as triglycerides
  • If serving contains less than 0.5 g, the content shall be expressed as 0
A

Total Fat FDA Definition

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3
Q

Function of lipids in diet

A
  1. Energy
  2. Flavor and texture
  3. Flakiness and tenderness
  4. Emulsifier
  5. Transfer heat during cooking
  6. Satiety
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4
Q

State of matter of fats at room temperature

A

solid

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5
Q

State of matter of oils at room temperature

A

liquid

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6
Q

Three types of glycerides

A

mono, di, and tri-glycerides

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7
Q

Function of monoglycerides

A

emulsifier

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8
Q

Function of Diglycerides

A

emulsifier

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9
Q

Characteristic of Triglyceride

A

most abundant in foods

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10
Q

The acid-catalyzed reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester

A

Esterification

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11
Q

A triglyceride that contains three identical fatty acids

A

Simple triglyceride

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12
Q
  • A triglyceride that contains two or three different fatty acids
  • Exist in a stair-step (chair) or tuning-fork conformation to overcome space limitations
A

Mixed triglyceride

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13
Q

Contains
1. two hydrophobic fatty acids esterified to glycerol
2. hydrophilic polar group with phosphoric acid/group and glycerol
3. nitrogen containing group in the position of third fatty acid position

A

Phospholipid

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14
Q
  • Most common phosphate lipid
  • Found in nearly every living cell
  • Promotes stable formation of oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions
  • Can be found in egg yolk and soybean
  • both liquid and powder form
A

Lecithin

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15
Q

The percentage of acetone-insoluble material

A

AI

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16
Q

The relative composition of the water-loving (polar) and fat-loving (non-polar) elements

A

HLB (Hydrophilic/lipophilic balance)

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17
Q

AI of lecithin

A

62-64%

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18
Q

HLB of lecithin

A

2-4

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19
Q
  • Contain a steroid nucleus = 8-carbon side chain and an alcohol group
  • nonpolar lipids all have three 6-C rings and a 5C ring
  • Round in shape
A

Sterols

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20
Q

Animal Sterols

A

cholesterol

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21
Q

Plant Sterols

A

Sitosterol and stigmasterol

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22
Q
  • important minor components of most vegetable oils
  • animal fat contains little/none of this component
  • antioxidant, help prevent oxidative rancidity
  • sources of vitamin E
  • partially removed by heat of processing and may be added after processing to improve oxidative stability of oils
A

Tocopherols

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23
Q
  • ADEK are soluble in fat
  • added to foods to increase nutritive value
A

Vitamins

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24
Q
  • Carotenoids and chlorophylls
  • May be removed by bleaching during processing
A

Pigments

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25
Q

Long hydrocarbon chains with a methyl group at one end and a carboxylic group at the other

A

Fatty Acids

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26
Q
  • The smallest fatty acid, with four carbon atoms
  • found in butter (NOT lard or tallow)
A

butyric acid (butyrate)

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27
Q
  • Fatty acids that contain single carbon-to-carbon bonds and have the general formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH
  • Linear shape
  • Appear solid at room temperature
  • high melting point
  • strong interactions between chains
  • ex. butter, milk, animal products
A

Saturated Fatty Acids

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28
Q
  • Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds
  • liquid at room temperature
  • have low melting points
  • Monounsaturated and polysaturated
  • few interactions between chains
  • non-linear shape
  • ex. vegetable oils
A

Unsaturated fatty acids

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29
Q
  • Hydrogen atoms attached to carbon atoms of the double bond are located on the same side of the double bond
  • Causes a kink in the chain (42 degree)
  • Almost all naturally occurring fats and oils that are used in food exist in cis configuration
A

Cis configuration

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30
Q
  • The hydrogen atoms are located on opposite sides of the double bond, across from one another
  • higher melting points
A

Trans configuration

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31
Q
  • Naturally occurring trans-Fatty acid found in small amounts in the fat of ruminants and dairy products (milk, butter, yogurt)
A

Vaccenic acid [11-octadecenoic acid]

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32
Q

Effect of trans fats on the body

A

Increase LDL cholesterol
Decrease HDL cholesterol

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33
Q

Formation of Trans fatty acid

A

During hydrogenation of oils, a conversion of some double bonds to trans configuration

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34
Q

Trans fat labeling rules

A

food manufacturers may only be required to list trans fats if they total more than 0.5 g/serving

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35
Q
  • Fats that have the same number of carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens
  • Form different arrangements that create different chemical and physical properties
A

Isomer fatty acids

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36
Q

Example of Geometric > Cis/Trans Isomerism

A

Oleic Acid (cis) vs Elaidic Acid (trans)
** produced during hydrogenation

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37
Q

Example of Positional Isomerism

A

C9,12,15 in alpha linolenic acid vs C6,9,12 in gamma linolenic acid
** produced during interesterification/rearrangement

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38
Q

Nomenclature of Fatty Acids

A
  1. Common/Trivial Name
  2. Systemic/Geneva Name
  3. Omega System
  4. Two numbers
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39
Q
  • Name describes the structure of the fatty acid to which it belongs
    -Ex: octadecanoic acid
    18 carbon = “octadec”
    no double bonds = “anoic”
    acid group = “acid”
    -Ex: cis, 9-octadecenoic acid
    18 carbon = “octadec”
    1 double bond @ C9 = “9-“ and + “enoic”
    cis double bond = “cis”
    acid group = “acid”
A

Systematic/Geneva Naming System

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40
Q
  • Classifies fatty acid according to the position of the first double bond, counting from methyl end of the molecule
  • used for unsaturated fatty acids
  • body lengthens fatty acid chains by adding carbons at the acid chain of the chain
A

Omega Naming system

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41
Q

Naming system in which:
- first number signifies the number of carbon atoms in the chain
- second number indicates the number of double bonds present

A

2 Number naming system

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42
Q

Omega-6 Fatty acid

A

Linoleic Acid

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43
Q

linoleic acid with 2 added carbon atoms

A

arachidonic acid

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44
Q

Omega-3 Fatty acid

A

linolenic acid

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45
Q

linolenic acid with 2 added carbon atoms

A

eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)

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46
Q

EPA with 2 added carbon atoms

A

docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

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47
Q

Omega Naming System
Ex. Linolenic Acid (18:2w6) - what do the numbers mean?

A

18 carbon fatty acid
2 double bonds
Double bond closest to the acid end of the methyl end

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48
Q
  • when a liquid fat is cooled, molecular movement slows down as energy is removed, and molecules are attracted to each other by van der waals forces
  • forces are weak and of minor significance in small molecules
  • their effect is cumulative, and in large/long-chain molecules, total attractive force is appreciable
  • Fat molecules can align and bond
A

Crystal formation of fats and oils

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49
Q

Crystal formation properties of symmetrical molecules

A
  • easily form crystals
  • less energy needs to be removed before crystallization
  • high melting point
  • large crystal size
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50
Q

Crystal formation properties of asymmetrical/kinked molecules

A
  • less easily form crystals
  • more energy needs to removed before crystallization
  • low melting point
  • small crystal size
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51
Q

Process of Polymorphism

A
  • Fats can exist in different
  • smallest and least stable crystals = alpha crystals, formed if fats are chilled rapidly
  • alpha crystals of most fats are unstable —> readily change to beta prime crystals (1 micrometer long)
  • Beta prime —-> intermediate crystal form (3-5 micrometers)
  • intermediate crystal —> coarse beta crystals (25-100 micrometers) (highest melting point)
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52
Q

Properties of Alpha Triacylglycerol Polymorphs

A
  • obtained after rapid cooling of liquid fat
  • Thermodynamically most unstable
  • Lowest melting point
  • Most loosely packed
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53
Q

Properties of Beta Prime Triacylglycerol Polymorphs

A

-Obtained after slow cooling of liquid fat
- Polymorphic transformation of the alpha form
- Thermodynamically unstable
- intermediate melting point
- more closely packed

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54
Q

Properties of Beta Triacylglycerol Polymorph

A
  • Obtained after very slow cooling of liquid fat
  • Polymorphic transformation of the beta- prime form
  • most stable form
  • most closely packed
55
Q

Fats with smaller crystals

A
  • have more crystals
  • have much greater total crystal surface area
  • harder fats
  • smoother and finer texture
  • appear less oily because oil is present as a fine film surrounding the crystals
56
Q

Fats with larger crystals

A
  • have few crystals
  • less total crystal surface area than a fat with smaller crystals
  • softer fats
  • rougher, coarser texture
  • more oily appearance
57
Q

Techniques to form small crystals

A
  • rapid cooling
    -agitation
  • heterogeneous fat
58
Q

An index of the force of attraction between molecules

A

melting point

59
Q

Fats with lower melting points and broader melting range

A

mixture of several triglycerides
melting range is dependent on the fatty acid content

60
Q

Effect of chain length on melting point

A
  • Long-chain fatty acids have a higher melting point than short-chain fatty acids
    —-> because there is more potential for attraction between long
60
Q

Effect of double bonds on melting point

A
  • as the number of double bonds increases, the melting point decreases
  • because of kinks make molecules hard to attract to each other
61
Q

Effect of isomeric configuration on melting points

A
  • cis isomer has a lower melting point
  • because of the kink it forms
62
Q

Typical DSC Curve of an Edible Fat

A
  1. Initial deflection proportional to the heat capacity of the sample
  2. part of the DSC curve with no thermic effects/baseline
  3. Melting peak
  4. Onset of oxidation in air
63
Q

Polyunsaturated Fats

A

Source: Plants
State at room temperature: liquid

64
Q

Monounsaturated Fats

A

Source: Plants
State at room temp: liquid
- Associated with a decrease in serum cholesterol + decreased risk of coronary heart disease

65
Q

Saturated Fats

A

Source: Animals
State at room temp: solid
- implicated in greater rise in serum cholesterol than that produced by intake of dietary cholesterol

66
Q

Composition of Animal Fat

A
  • typically have 18 carbons in fatty acid chain
  • majority is saturated
  • may decline in flavor of vegetable oil
67
Q
  • rendered from hogs
  • 43% saturated fatty acids
A

Lard

68
Q
  • rendered from cattle
  • 48% saturated fatty acids
A

Tallow

69
Q
  • Oils derived from plants grown in tropical areas of the world are referred to as tropical oil
  • high in saturated fat content and contain a significant amount of short-chain fatty acids
  • ex. Cocoa butter, coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil
A

Tropical Oils

70
Q

Conventional Production and processing methods

A

cross-breeding and selection
- developed low-linolenic soybean oil with 2.5-3% linolenic content
—–> increased stability and protects against rancidity

71
Q

Unconventional Production and processing methods

A

gene modification
- produces a more stable oil that does not require hydrogenation

72
Q
  • Oils that have undergone the process of removing odors by heat and vacuum or by adsorption onto charcoal
A

Deodorized oils

73
Q
  • solid, usable fat derived from animal fat after it is heated, freed from connective tissue, and then cooled
A

rendered fat

74
Q
  • moldable because it contains both liquid oil and solid crystals of triglycerides
  • two-phase system containing solid fat crystals, surrounded by liquid oil: liquid phase acts as a lubricant, enabling the solid crystals to slide past one another —> conferring moldability to the fat
  • consistency depends on the ratio of solid to liquid triglycerides
A

Plastic Fats

75
Q

If plastic fats have more liquid triglycerides:

A

the softer the fat will be

76
Q

If plastic fats have more solid triglycerides

A

the harder the fat will be

77
Q

Plastic fat should be plastic over _____ temperature range

A

wide
- so that creaming can be carried out at different (high/low) temperatures
- obtained by commercial modification, including processes of hydrogenation and interesterification

78
Q

Polymorphism preferred by creamed fats

A

Beta prime form
ex. shortened and rearranged lard

79
Q

Plasticity of butter

A
  • narrow plastic range
  • not a good choice for fat that needs to be creamed
80
Q
  • the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids to reduce the number of double bonds
  • occurs when hydrogen gas is reacted with oil under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure and in the presence of a catalyst
  • as reaction progresses, there is a gradual production of trans-fatty acids, which increases the melting point of the fat/oil
  • oil becomes more solid and more stable in storage
  • to convert liquid oils to semisolid/plastic fats
  • to increase the thermal and oxidative stability of the fat, and thus the shelf life
  • if the reaction is taken to completion, saturated fat is obtained
A

Hydrogenation

81
Q
  • provides an intermediate degree of solidification, reducing the number of double bonds, but not eliminating all double bonds
A

Partial Hydrogenation

82
Q

FDA Decision on Hydrogenation

A
  • Partially hydrogenated oils are NOT GRAS (not allowed after June 18, 2018)
  • 2020: fully hydrogenated rapeseed oil is safe for sparing use in food products
83
Q
  • aka rearrangement
  • causes the fatty acids to migrate and recombine with glycerol in a more random manner
  • forms new glycerides
  • increases the heterogeneity of the fat
  • doesn’t change the degree of unsaturation
  • doesn’t change the isomeric state of the fatty acids
  • the exchanging reaction of two acyl groups between two esters
  • reversible reaction
  • requires a catalyst to speed up reaction to equilibration
  • generally used to alter the melting profile of fats, crystalline characteristics, solid fat content, and plasticity
A

Interesterification

84
Q

Natural lard before interesterification

A
  • relatively homogeneous fat
  • narrow plastic range: too firm to be used straight from fridge vs too soft at near room temp
  • contains coarse beta-crystals (large crystals)
85
Q
  • One or two fatty acids in a triglyceride are replaced by acetic acid (CH3COOH)
  • Lowers the melting point of the fat because the molecules do not pack together as readily
  • enables the fat to form stable alpha crystals
  • used as edible lubricants and coating agents/films
A

Acetylation

86
Q

Lard after interesterification

A
  • increases heterogeneity
  • enables lard to form stable beta prime crystals (more stable, smaller)
  • increases the temperature range over which lard is plastic and workable
  • may be applied as a shortening product
87
Q
  • oil that has been pretreated
  • large, high melting-point triglyceride crystals in oil are subject to crystallization at refrigeration temperatures
  • oil is refrigerated and subsequently filtered to remove large undesirable crystals
  • used in salad dressing
A

winterization

88
Q
  • ex. when chocolate fat absorbs the odor of smoke in a candy store environment
  • ex. when soap is packaged in the same grocery bag at the supermarket
  • ex. butter readily absorbs fridge odors
A

deterioration of fats a la absorbing odors

89
Q
  • produces a disagreeable odor and flavor in fatty substances
  • 2 types: hydrolytic and oxidative
A

Rancidity

90
Q
  • when triglycerides react with water and free all three of their fatty acids from glycerol
  • reaction catalyzed by heat/enzymes (lipases)
A

Hydrolytic Rancidity

91
Q

How to prevent hydrolytic rancidity

A
  1. Store fat in cold place
  2. Inactivate the lipase
92
Q
  • Predominant type of rancidity
  • more double bonds in the unsaturated FA, the more subject to this type of rancidity
  • promoted by heat, light, certain metals, and enzymes (lipoxygenases)
A

Oxidative Rancidity/Autoxidation

93
Q

Initiation Stage of Oxidative Rancidity

A
  • Formation of a free radical
  • hydrogen on a carbon atom adjacent to one carrying a double bond is displaced to give a free radical
  • free radicals that form are unstable and very reactive
94
Q

Propagation Stage of Oxidative Rancidity

A
  • oxidation of free radical to yield activated peroxide
  • displaces hydrogen from another unsat FA –> forms another free radical
  • liberated Hydrogen unites with peroxide —> hydroperoxide
  • propogation of reaction
  • hydroperoxides are very unstable and decompose into compounds with shorter carbon chains (ex volatile FA, aldehydes, ketones) = characteristic odor/flavor of rancid fats/oils
95
Q

Termination Stage of Oxidative Rancidity

A
  • Involves reaction of free radicals to form nonradical products
  • elimination of all free radicals is the only way to halt the oxidation reaction
96
Q

How to prevent autoxidation/Oxidative rancidity

A
  • fats and oils must be stored in a cool dark environment and in a closed container (to minimize oxygen availability)
  • vacuum packaging of fat-containing products controls oxygen exposure
  • colored glass/wraps to control fluctuations in light intensity
  • fats must be stored away from metals that could catalyze the reaction —> cooking utensils must be free of copper/iron
  • lipoxygenases should be inactivated
  • sequestering agents
  • antioxidants
  • BHA
  • BHT
  • TBHQ
  • Tocopherols
97
Q
  • bind metals, preventing them from catalyzing auto-oxidation
  • aka chelator
  • ex. EDTA, citric acid
A

sequestering agents

98
Q
  • prevent auto-oxidation with the formation of FA free radicals
  • function by donating a hydrogen atom to the double bond in a FA and preventing the oxidation of any unsaturated bond
  • halt the reaction along the FA, which would leas to rancidity
  • many are phenolic compounds
A

Antioxidants

99
Q
  • Waxy white solid
  • effective in preventing the oxidation of animal fats, not vegetable oils
  • Synthetic
A

BHA

100
Q
  • white crystalline solid
  • effective in preventing the oxidation of animal fats
  • synthetic
A

BHT

101
Q
  • white-to-tan colored powder that functions best in frying processes rather than baking applications
  • synthetic
A

TBHQ

102
Q
  • can be added to both animal and vegetable oils
  • sources of vitamin E
  • naturally found in vegetable oils
A

Tocopherols

103
Q
  • include both pourable liquids and stiff solids
  • hydrogenated oil
  • plant, animal, or plant-animal blends of fats may be used
  • function: to physically shorten platelets of protein-starch structure developed in manipulated wheat flour mixture
A

Shortening

104
Q
  • obtained by partial hydrogenation of refined oils
  • pale yellow color
A

Margarine

105
Q

Ranking of flakiness in shortening

A
  1. Lard
  2. Butter and margarine
  3. Hydrogenated fats
  4. Oils
106
Q

Tenderness vs Flakiness

A
  • tender: easily crushed/chewed, soft and fragile
  • flakiness: contain many thin pieces/layers of cooked dough (ex. puff pastry, lard piecrusts)
107
Q

Effect of solid fat on texture

A

Creates layers or flakes in the mixture = flakiness

108
Q

Effect of liquid oil on texture

A

Coats flour particles more thoroughly, creating less layers = tenderness

109
Q

Result of insufficient manipulation on food mixture

A

Poor distribution of fat throughout the food mixture

110
Q

Result of excess manipulation on food mixture

A

Causes the fat to spread/be softened, minimizing the possibility of flakes

111
Q

Effect of temperature on texture on food product

A

Cold shortening (solid or liquid) produce more flaky products
Room temperature shortening is less flaky

112
Q
  • rapid heat transfer method that achieves a higher temperature than boiling or dry heat temperature
A

Frying

113
Q
  • the temperature at which fat may be heated before continuous puffs of blue smoke coming from the surface of the fat under controlled conditions
  • presence of smoke indicates that free glycerol has been further hydrolyzed to yield acrolein
A

smoke point

114
Q

a mucous membrane irritant produced from free glycerol by heating oil to its smoke point

A

acrolein

115
Q

Smoke point of monoglycerides and diglycerides

A
  • hydrolyzed more easily than triglycerides
  • lower smoke point
  • not recommended as frying oils
116
Q
  • When fat exceeds the smoke point
  • point at which small flames of fire begin in the oil
  • lowest temperature at which a substance will give off a vapor that will flash/burn for a moment when ignited
A

Flash point

117
Q
  • the temperature at which a fire is sustained in the oil
A

Fire point

118
Q

Changes to food during frying

A
  • removes internal water
  • allows a level of oil absorption
  • thermal decomposition of oil
  • unwanted orange/brown color
  • more viscous/foamier
  • smoke point decreases as oil is used repeatedly
  • reduced quality
119
Q

Examples of Carbohydrate fat replacements

A
  • starch
  • cellulose
  • gums
  • fiber
  • dextrins
  • maltodextrins
  • polydextrose
  • inulin
120
Q

Examples of Protein fat replacements

A
  • gelatin
  • microparticulated protein
  • modified whey protein concentrate
121
Q

Examples of Fat fat replacements

A
  • emulsifiers
  • lipid analogs
  • olestra
  • sorbestrin
  • salatrim
122
Q
  • replace 9 kcal/g with 0-4 kcal/g
  • hydrocolloid materials
A

CHO-derived fat replacement

123
Q
  • long-chain polymers
  • principally carbohydrates
  • thicken/gel in aqueous systems
  • create a creamy viscosity that mimics fat
A

Hydrocolloids

124
Q

Examples of hydrocolloids

A
  • hemicellulose
  • Beta-glucans
  • gums
125
Q
  • offer less than 9 kcal/g
  • ex. Olestra
A

Fat-Derived Fat Replacements

126
Q
  • sucrose polyester (mostly octaester)
  • synthesized by reacting six to eight fatty acids with the eight free hydroxyl groups of sucrose
  • not digestible
  • not absorbed
  • provides no calories
  • distinctive label statement is required
A

Olestra (Olean)

127
Q
  • replaces 9 kcal/g with 1-4 kcal/g
  • heats and intensely blends naturally occurring food proteins (egg white and milk proteins) with water pectin, and citric acid
  • remains chemically unchanged, but aggregates under controlled conditions that allow the formation of small aggregates/microparticles
A

Protein-derived fat replacements

128
Q

kcal/g of fats

A

9 kcal/g

129
Q

Essential PUFAs, required for human growth

A

linoleic and linolenic acids

130
Q

Metabolic fate of essential fatty acids

A
  1. dietary triglycerides
  2. Digestion
  3. EFA
  4. Fatty Acyl Coa
    a) energy
    b) desaturation/elongation
    c) esterification —-> synthesis of triacylglycerols, cholesterol esters, phospholipids
131
Q
  • hydrogenated form of plant sterols
  • saturated 5-6 bond
  • have either methyl or ehtyl group attached to the molecule
  • known to reduce level of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the blood
A

stanols

132
Q

Phytosterol and phytostanol role in plants

A

help maintain fluidity/rigidity of plant cell membranes/walls

133
Q
  • steroids with similar structure to cholesterol
  • 5-6 bond is unsaturated
  • alcohol group attached to molecule
  • cholesterol-like substance that occur naturally at low levels in fruits, vegetables, nuts
A

Sterols

Food Science (5 decks)

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