family diversity Flashcards
trends in divorce
divorce has doubled since 1961, 1969 and 1972 - this means 40% of marriage end in divorce
65% of divorce petitions come from women
couples who marry young, have a child before marriage or where one or both partners have already been married are at greater risk of divorce
6 reasons for increase in divorce
changes in the law
decline in stigma
secularisation
rising expectations of marriage
changing positions of women
modernity and individualisation
increase in divorce - changes in the law
divorce was previously difficult to obtain in the uk, however law changes have made it easier to access
1969 - divorce reform act allows for a divorce if separated for 2 or 5 years, or if there was a irretrievable breakdown
1984 - couples married for one year can apply for a divorce
2014 - marriage act allowed for same sex marriage
increase in divorce - ao3 for changes in the law
it doesn’t explain why more people take advantage of the freedom of getting a divorce
increase in divorce - decline in stigma (mitchell and goody)
the stigma on divorce has decreased making it socially acceptable - couples are more likely to resort to divorce to deal with their martial problems
the normalisation of divorce means it is seen simply as a misfortune now
general ao3 for decline in stigma
family patterns tend to still be traditional - many are still live in a family, brought up by couples, couples marry and divorcees remarry
increase in divorce - secularisation
since there has been a decline in religious influence, people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings while seeking a divorce
some churches have soften their views on divorce, perhaps due to fear of losing credibility with the public and their members
general ao3 for secularisation
many first time marriages take place in a religious context, suggesting religion is still relevant to people’s lives
there is still a demand for religious weddings, showing that religion is still relevant
increase in divorce - rising expectations of marriage (fletcher)
couples are less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage influenced by a ideology of romantic love - marriage should be based on mutual love and satisfaction
in the past, couples had low expectations so felt less dissatisfied by the absence of intimacy, but now individuals seek personal commitment and are willing to divorce if they do not find it
increase in divorce - ao3 for rising expectations of marriage
fail to explain why women are more likely to seek a divorce than men - could be argued it is due to the oppression of women in marriage e.g. taking the man’s last name, triple shift
increase in divorce - changing positions of women
improvements in women’s economic position means there are less reliant on their husband for financial security, so there are free to end an unsatisfactory marriage
more women are working - 53% in 1971 vs 67% in 2013
girls overachieve in education, the gender pay gap has narrowed due to changes in the law and welfare benefits allow for women to depend on the government rather than their husbands
general ao3 for changing positions of women
women being wage earners and home makers has created a new conflict of the triple shift - this is actually causing more divorces
many women put off marriage for later rather than avoiding it completely
increase in divorce - modernity and individualisation (beck and giddens)
modern society results in traditional norms disappearing, leaving individuals to pursue their own self interest
relationships are more fragile as people seek ‘pure relationships’ meaning they are more likely to divorce if their interests are not met
this shows that people marriage for personal fulfilment, and are more likely to divorce if they are not fulfilled
increase in divorce - ao3 for modernity and individualisation
functionalists argue pure relationships break down the norms and values that hold society together as the family is all about carrying out the 4 functions
feminists arguments for the increase in divorce
married women now have a dual burden of paid and house work, or a triple shift where they also deal with emotional work
women are more valued at work whereas at home there are segregated conjugal roles which can lead to frustration - since women are more dissatisfied with patriarchal marriage they are more confident to accept feminist ideologies and reject patriarchal marriage
positive sociological views of high divorce rates
feminists - view high divorce rates as women breaking from the oppressive patriarchal nuclear family
postmodernists - individuals now have the freedom to end a marriage, causing family diversity
neutral/negative sociological views of high divorce rates
functionalists - high divorce rates don’t prove marriage is under threat, it is rather the result of high expectations of marriage, the high rate of remarriage suggests people still have faith in marriage
personal life perspective - high divorce rates can cause problems e.g. financial difficulties, lack of contact but the family can adapt, suggesting divorce is just a transition in the life course
new right - high divorce rates undermine the traditional nuclear family and creates an underclass of welfare-dependent lone mothers and is the cause of high crime rates
trends in marriage
first marriage has significantly declined from 480000 in 1972 to 85770 in 2020 while remarriages have risen
average marriage age has risen to 35.4 for men and 33.2 for women
only 15% of marriages were in a religious context in 2020
4 reasons for decrease in marriage
secularisation
decline in stigma
changing positions of women
fear of divorce
decrease in marriage - secularisation
the decline of religious influence means less people are likely to get married for religious reasons
people are freer to choose what type of relationship to enter e.g. cohabitation
3% of young people with no religion were married compared to 17% of those with a religion, suggesting marriage isn’t as essential to those without a religion
decrease in marriage - decline in stigma
cohabitation, having a child outside of marriage and staying single has become more acceptable
in 1989, 70% of people believed couples who want children should get married compared to 42% in 2012
decrease in marriage - changing position of women
women are now financially independent from men due to better careers and education - breaking the glass ceiling
this means women have the freedom to not get married and instead focus on their career, which could be influenced by feminist views that marriage is a oppressive patriarchal institution
sue sharp’s study would support this view - girls in the 70s were most interested in marriage but in the 90s girls focused on a career and independence
decrease in marriage - fear of divorce
people may fear divorce due to the emotional difficulties, financial costs, the impacts on children and outward perception
as a result they will avoid marriage all together to avoid these issues
decrease in marriage - ao3 for fear of divorce
people who get divorced eventually get remarried, suggesting divorce isn’t a big enough reason to not get married
2012 - 1/3 of marriages were remarriages from divorcees
trends in cohabitation
there were 3.5 million cohabitating couples in 2022 with 20% of all unmarried adults cohabitating
these numbers are most prominent in 16-29 year olds and 45-60 year olds
3 reasons for increase in cohabitation
decline in stigma
changing positions of women
secularisation
increase in cohabitation - decline in stigma
sex outside marriage is more acceptable - in 1989 44% believed sex outside marriage was okay and this increased to 65% in 2012 showing a change in attitudes
young people are more likely to accept cohabitation - 88% of 18-24 year olds thought cohabitation was okay compared to 40% of those over 65
increase in cohabitation - changing positions of women
women have broken the glass ceiling and have access to the top jobs meanings they have less need for financial security that comes with marriage
liberal feminists would support this view as it shows there has been a march of progress due to legal changes e.g. equal pay act
increase in cohabitation - secularisation
young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit than those with as they are not influenced by religious teachings
religion places high emphasis on marriage so non religious young people don’t see marriage as an important life stage
arguments for cohabitation being a stepping stone to marriage (chester)
75% of couples who cohabit intended to marry each other, showing that cohabitation is part of the process of getting married
many see cohabitation as a trial marriage to see if they are compatible
arguments for cohabitation being an alternative to marriage (chandler)
cohabitation is a permanent alternative to marriage as it represents young people’s conscious attempt to create a personally negotiated and equal relationship - women who cohabit tend to do less housework
trends in same sex relationships
approximately 3.3% of uk population identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual and more are identifying with these labels - increasing since 2014
since the legalisation of same sex marriage in 2014, more same sex couples are getting married
3 reasons for the increase of same sex relationships
legal changes
decline in stigma
secularisation
increase in same sex relationships - legal changes
homosexual acts were decriminalised in 1967 for adults over 21, and this decreased to 18 to be equal with heterosexual people
since 2002, gay couples have the same adoption rights as married couples
civil partnerships act 2004 - gave same sex couples the same legal rights as married couples regarding pensions, inheritance and property
marriage act 2013 - first gay marriages took part in 2014
increase in same sex relationships - ao3 for legal changes
the new right criticise these changes as they go against the four functions of the family and provide inadequate socialisation
increase in same sex relationships - decline in stigma
there has been an increase in tolerance of homosexuality overtime
increase in same sex relationships - secularisation
many believe it isn’t a sin to be homosexual contrary to religious scriptures since there has been a decline in religious influence
arguments for homosexual relationships being similar to heterosexual relationships (weeks and weston)
homosexual people create family based on ‘friendship as kinship’ where they choose their family that offer the same security and stability as heterosexual families
same sex cohabitation can be seen as a quasi marriage where they cohabit as stable partners, contrasting with the 1970s which favoured casual relationships
arguments against homosexual relationships being similar to heterosexual relationships (allan and crow, einasdottir)
due to an absence of a legal framework, same sex couples have to negotiate their commitments and responsibilities more, making their relationships more flexible and less stable
though same sex couples welcomed their relationships to be legally recognised, they don’t want it to limit the negotiability of their relationship, suggesting they want their relationships to differ from heterosexual ones
3 reasons for increase in one person households
divorce patterns
marriage patterns
creative singlehood
trends in one person households
there has been a big rise in people living alone - 3/10 households were one person since 2000
46% of one person households in 2022 were people of pensionable age, with men under 65 being the most likely group to live alone
increase in one person households - divorce patterns
since after divorce the children often go to live with the mother, the father is more likely to leave the family home and live alone, which explains why men under 65 are most likely to live alone
increase in one person households - marriage patterns
due to the decline in marriage, many people remain single which has risen by half since 1971 meaning many people will live alone
increase in one person households - creative singlehood (stein)
many people now make the deliberate choice to live alone as they have more freedom and choice
liberal feminists would support this view as it shows women can now support themselves due to breaking through the glass ceiling to live alone
general ao3 for one person households
some people may live alone as there aren’t enough partners available in their age group, especially for older widows as their partner may have died
definition of living apart togethers
a couple in a significant relationship but are not married or cohabitating
3 reasons for increase in living apart togethers
decline in stigma
changing positions of women
limited finances
increase in living apart togethers - decline in stigma
it is now more socially acceptable to live separately, as 20% see living apart togethers as their ideal relationships due to having more financial independence and less arguments
increase in living apart togethers - changing positions of women
liberal feminists argue there has been a march of progress where women are more financially independent so can afford to live alone due to the equal pay act, overachieving in education
radical feminists would support this as it supports separatism
increase in living apart togethers - limited finances
couples may not have enough money to live together e.g. unable to afford a mortgage deposit
general ao3 for living apart togethers
some actively choose to live apart so they have their own space
trends in child bearing
51.4% of children are born outside of marriage, and women have children later at 29.9 years old to focus on their career
this means that due to fertility decreasing as women get older, women are having fewer children or are remaining childless
2 reasons for changes in child bearing
decline in stigma
changing positions of women
changes in child bearing - decline in stigma
it is more socially acceptable to have children later, outside of marriage or not at all
only 1/3 of 18-24 year olds think children should be born after marriage
changes in child bearing - changing positions of women
women now focus on their career before starting a family, which liberal feminists would support as it shows there has been a march of progress
trends in lone parent families
lone parent families make up 27% of all families with children
85% of lone parent families are headed by women
2 reasons for increase in lone parent families
changing positions of women
increase in divorce
increase in lone parent families - changing positions of women
women are now financially independent so they can support their children on their own, as well as with welfare benefits
increase in lone parent families - increase in divorce
after a divorce children often stay with one parent predominately, perhaps due to the decline in stigma where it is socially acceptable to raise a child alone
reasons for lone parent families being matrifocal
women tend to gain custody of children during a divorce as women are naturally suited to the expressive/nurturing role
some women choose to limit the father’s involvement as the changing positions of women allow them to support their child without his involvement
ao3 for lone parent families being matrifocal
fathers 4 justice is a charity that campaigns for men to have the same rights as women when it comes to custody of children
the new right would support this as it gives children a male role model to be adequately socialised by
the new right explanation for increase in lone parent families (murray)
the growth of lone parent families is caused by an overgenerous welfare state which they see as an perverse incentive - the welfare state rewards irresponsible behaviour by creating a dependency culture
this is referred to as the underclass who choose not to work because they know the government will support them financially anyway
the remedy for this is to abolish welfare benefits so people learn to support themselves
ao3 for the new right explanation for increase in lone parent families
many lone parents are women, who earn less than men and a lack of affordable childcare means welfare benefits are essential for some people so abolishing them would lead to absolute poverty
trends in reconstituted families
in 2011, reconstituted families made up 11% of couple families
2 reasons for increase in reconstituted families
divorce/separation
courts
increase in reconstituted families - divorce/separation
lone parents form new partnerships after divorce
increase in reconstituted families - courts
children in stepfamilies are from the women’s previous relationships since children are more likely to remain with the mother after a divorce
pros of being in a reconstituted family (ferri and smith)
stepfamilies are similar to first families and the involvement of stepparents in childcare creates a positive childhood experience
cons of being in a reconstituted family (ferri and smith, allan and crow)
stepfamilies are at a greater risk of poverty since parents have to look after more children from the previous relationships
stepfamilies may experience divided loyalty and tensions between stepparents and stepchildren, or between stepchildren creating a negative childhood experience
HOWEVER mccarthy argues these tensions are not so different from intact families
family type most prevalent in black families
higher proportion of lone parent households
reasons why black families tend to be headed by a lone woman
evidence of family disorganisation - under slavery couples were sold separately and children stayed with their mother, this pattern has arguably persisted until today
the high rates of unemployment among black men means they are less able to provide for their families, leading to martial breakdown or desertion so the mother takes over that role
general ao3 for black family being headed by a lone mother (mirza and reynolds)
this rather reflects the high value black women put on independence rather than the result of disorganisation
many apparently ‘lone’ parents are in stable relationships but do not cohabit
family type most prevalent in asian families
higher proportion of extended families, especially in sikh, muslim and hindu families
reasons why asian families tend to be extended
more british asians are in the childbearing age groups so they can have more children
asian culture often put high value on extended families
supporting ao3 for asian families being extended (ballard)
extended families remain an important source of support for asian migrants during the 50s and 60s
the family was originally extended and patriarchal, so these strong links were maintained by living close to relatives and starting businesses
arguments for the extended family being important today
willmott - the extended family hasn’t fully disappeared as relatives may still maintain frequent contact through visits and phone calls, creating a ‘dispersed extended family’
chamberlain - caribbean families continue to provide support as multiple nuclear families consisting of siblings, uncles and cousins who provide support in child rearing
bell - working class and middle class families relied on wider kin for support, and the beanpole family has become important as it is extended vertically through generations due to longer life expectancy and smaller family sizes
arguments to the obligation to relatives (cheal and mason)
more is expected of women than men - there is a hierarchy where relatives are approached to help for household tasks, daughters and then sons
though daughters are more likely to take care of the elderly than sons, not all daughters take an equal role - it depends on how obligated they feel towards their relatives
who would argue family diversity is not desirable?
functionalists
the new right
family diversity is not desirable - functionalism (parsons)
the nuclear family suits the needs of society by providing a geographically and socially mobile workforce, and by performing the functions of primary socialisation and the stabilisation of adult personalities
the nuclear family also has a gendered division of labour between the husband and wife (instrumental/expressive role) which both are naturally suited for
since they believed a gendered division of labour is normal, any diversity could lead to serious social problems as children are inadequately socialised and turn to gangs and crime
family diversity is not desirable - ao3 for functionalism
radical feminists argue functionalism ignores the dark side of the family where there is always a threat of domestic violence and child abuse
lacks contemporary relevance as the uk has become multicultural with religious and ethnic subcultures
family diversity is not desirable - the new right (benson)
the nuclear family is the most functional and natural family and that family diversity is the cause of all social problems e.g. high crime rates, failure in education
they see lone parent families as unnatural and harmful to children as they cannot discipline their children properly and are a burden to the welfare state - it discourages men from working and creates a dependency culture
parents who are unmarried are more likely to separate suggesting cohabitation is unstable as it allows couples to avoid commitment and responsibility, making society broken
the solution is to return traditional values e.g. marriage by making divorce difficult to access, giving tax breaks to married couples and abolishing the welfare state
family diversity is not desirable - ao3 for the new right
little or no evidence that lone parents are part of a dependency culture
feminists argue the nuclear family is based off of the patriarchal oppression of women by preventing women to work and denying them a equal say in decision making
since poorer groups are more likely to cohabit, it may be poverty that causes cohabiting couples to separate rather that not marrying
who/what arguments are there for family diversity being desirable?
rapaport and rapaport
postmodernism
individualisation thesis
negotiated family
connectedness thesis
family diversity is desirable - rapaport and rapaport
the main family type in the uk is no longer the nuclear family as we have a range of family types (organisational diversity)
family diversity represents the freedom that people now have to choose and the widespread acceptance of different cultures and way of life
family diversity is desirable - postmodernism (stacey)
the changes in the position of women has made family types more diverse - many women reject the traditional stay at home role so choose different families that suit their desire to work
the ‘divorce extended’ family type is where members are connected by divorce rather than marriage, female members such as former in laws may help with childcare
this shows that it is pointless to make generalisations about the family as it is what an individual chooses to call family and is based on their choices on how they live their life
family diversity is desirable - ao3 for postmodernism
functionalism and the new right would argue the nuclear family is essential for society to function as it performs adequate socialisation for its members
family diversity is desirable - individualisation thesis (giddens and beck)
in the past, people’s lives were dictated by social structures and roles e.g. social class, gender, ethnicity which prevented people from choosing their own life course - they were expected to marry and take up either the instrumental/expressive role
today, people are no longer tied down by these social structures and have become disembedded from traditional roles giving us more freedom
rather than the standard biography, we now have a do it yourself biography which has created more family diversity
family diversity is desirable - ao3 for individualisation thesis
our decisions are often made within a social context
the structures of class, gender, ethnicity have not disappeared - women may have gained the right to vote, divorce but they don’t have total freedom, suggesting it exaggerates the amount of freedom and choice people have in life
family diversity is desirable - negotiated family (beck)
the expectations of each family member is based on the needs of each individual family - this shows that family roles are negotiated between themselves and the family’s needs
for example, a teenager could be a carer for a disabled parent, the role of a father may alter after a divorce
this shows there is more freedom in family life but also more uncertainity as family ties become unpredictable and more flexible
family diversity is desirable - ao3 for the negotiated family
the new right argue the negotiated family is a negative thing as it goes against the traditional nuclear family
family diversity is desirable - connectedness thesis (smart)
rather than having unlimited choice and being disembedded, our choices are made within a web of connectedness e.g. social class, gender, family and personal values
we live in a network of existing relationships which strongly influence our options in relationships, while some people can negotiate relationships they may be restricted in their choice
this challenges the assumption of pure relationships - some may need to stay in a relationship for money rather than love as it is part of their web of connectedness
family diversity is desirable - ao3 for connectedness thesis
gender norms tend to dictate that women should take custody and full care of the children leaving men freer to choose their relationships, they are also paid more so they have more freedom
the relative powerlessness of women means they are often trapped in abusive relationships - the dark side of the family
who would argue there isn’t much family diversity?
functionalists
chester
weeks
weston
there isn’t much family diversity - functionalism
despite the increase in divorce and lone parent families, many couples get married or remarried eventually suggesting society as a whole still values the institution of marriage
there isn’t much family diversity - ao3 for functionalism
the new right would look at family diversity with concern as it represent the breaking down of the nuclear family
there isn’t much family diversity - chester
the importance of family diversity has been exaggerated - the nuclear family has simply changed into the neo conventional family where both spouses work making the division of labour more equal
many decide to cohabit but it is merely a stepping stone to marriage
there isn’t much family diversity - ao3 for chester
some see cohabitation as an alternative to marriage
there isn’t much family diversity - weeks
same sex relationships are now similar to heterosexual relationships due to increased social acceptance
there isn’t much family diversity - weston
same sex families are now regarded as quasi marriages - they are similar to heterosexual families as they have the same adoption rights to start a family
this doesn’t indicate family diversity as they are already similar
