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family diversity Flashcards

1
Q

trends in divorce

A

divorce has doubled since 1961, 1969 and 1972 - this means 40% of marriage end in divorce
65% of divorce petitions come from women
couples who marry young, have a child before marriage or where one or both partners have already been married are at greater risk of divorce

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2
Q

6 reasons for increase in divorce

A

changes in the law
decline in stigma
secularisation
rising expectations of marriage
changing positions of women
modernity and individualisation

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3
Q

increase in divorce - changes in the law

A

divorce was previously difficult to obtain in the uk, however law changes have made it easier to access

1969 - divorce reform act allows for a divorce if separated for 2 or 5 years, or if there was a irretrievable breakdown

1984 - couples married for one year can apply for a divorce

2014 - marriage act allowed for same sex marriage

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4
Q

increase in divorce - ao3 for changes in the law

A

it doesn’t explain why more people take advantage of the freedom of getting a divorce

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5
Q

increase in divorce - decline in stigma (mitchell and goody)

A

the stigma on divorce has decreased making it socially acceptable - couples are more likely to resort to divorce to deal with their martial problems

the normalisation of divorce means it is seen simply as a misfortune now

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6
Q

general ao3 for decline in stigma

A

family patterns tend to still be traditional - many are still live in a family, brought up by couples, couples marry and divorcees remarry

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7
Q

increase in divorce - secularisation

A

since there has been a decline in religious influence, people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings while seeking a divorce

some churches have soften their views on divorce, perhaps due to fear of losing credibility with the public and their members

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8
Q

general ao3 for secularisation

A

many first time marriages take place in a religious context, suggesting religion is still relevant to people’s lives

there is still a demand for religious weddings, showing that religion is still relevant

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9
Q

increase in divorce - rising expectations of marriage (fletcher)

A

couples are less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage influenced by a ideology of romantic love - marriage should be based on mutual love and satisfaction

in the past, couples had low expectations so felt less dissatisfied by the absence of intimacy, but now individuals seek personal commitment and are willing to divorce if they do not find it

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10
Q

increase in divorce - ao3 for rising expectations of marriage

A

fail to explain why women are more likely to seek a divorce than men - could be argued it is due to the oppression of women in marriage e.g. taking the man’s last name, triple shift

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11
Q

increase in divorce - changing positions of women

A

improvements in women’s economic position means there are less reliant on their husband for financial security, so there are free to end an unsatisfactory marriage

more women are working - 53% in 1971 vs 67% in 2013

girls overachieve in education, the gender pay gap has narrowed due to changes in the law and welfare benefits allow for women to depend on the government rather than their husbands

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12
Q

general ao3 for changing positions of women

A

women being wage earners and home makers has created a new conflict of the triple shift - this is actually causing more divorces

many women put off marriage for later rather than avoiding it completely

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13
Q

increase in divorce - modernity and individualisation (beck and giddens)

A

modern society results in traditional norms disappearing, leaving individuals to pursue their own self interest

relationships are more fragile as people seek ‘pure relationships’ meaning they are more likely to divorce if their interests are not met

this shows that people marriage for personal fulfilment, and are more likely to divorce if they are not fulfilled

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14
Q

increase in divorce - ao3 for modernity and individualisation

A

functionalists argue pure relationships break down the norms and values that hold society together as the family is all about carrying out the 4 functions

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15
Q

feminists arguments for the increase in divorce

A

married women now have a dual burden of paid and house work, or a triple shift where they also deal with emotional work

women are more valued at work whereas at home there are segregated conjugal roles which can lead to frustration - since women are more dissatisfied with patriarchal marriage they are more confident to accept feminist ideologies and reject patriarchal marriage

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16
Q

positive sociological views of high divorce rates

A

feminists - view high divorce rates as women breaking from the oppressive patriarchal nuclear family

postmodernists - individuals now have the freedom to end a marriage, causing family diversity

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17
Q

neutral/negative sociological views of high divorce rates

A

functionalists - high divorce rates don’t prove marriage is under threat, it is rather the result of high expectations of marriage, the high rate of remarriage suggests people still have faith in marriage

personal life perspective - high divorce rates can cause problems e.g. financial difficulties, lack of contact but the family can adapt, suggesting divorce is just a transition in the life course

new right - high divorce rates undermine the traditional nuclear family and creates an underclass of welfare-dependent lone mothers and is the cause of high crime rates

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18
Q

trends in marriage

A

first marriage has significantly declined from 480000 in 1972 to 85770 in 2020 while remarriages have risen
average marriage age has risen to 35.4 for men and 33.2 for women
only 15% of marriages were in a religious context in 2020

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19
Q

4 reasons for decrease in marriage

A

secularisation
decline in stigma
changing positions of women
fear of divorce

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20
Q

decrease in marriage - secularisation

A

the decline of religious influence means less people are likely to get married for religious reasons

people are freer to choose what type of relationship to enter e.g. cohabitation

3% of young people with no religion were married compared to 17% of those with a religion, suggesting marriage isn’t as essential to those without a religion

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21
Q

decrease in marriage - decline in stigma

A

cohabitation, having a child outside of marriage and staying single has become more acceptable

in 1989, 70% of people believed couples who want children should get married compared to 42% in 2012

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22
Q

decrease in marriage - changing position of women

A

women are now financially independent from men due to better careers and education - breaking the glass ceiling

this means women have the freedom to not get married and instead focus on their career, which could be influenced by feminist views that marriage is a oppressive patriarchal institution

sue sharp’s study would support this view - girls in the 70s were most interested in marriage but in the 90s girls focused on a career and independence

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23
Q

decrease in marriage - fear of divorce

A

people may fear divorce due to the emotional difficulties, financial costs, the impacts on children and outward perception

as a result they will avoid marriage all together to avoid these issues

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24
Q

decrease in marriage - ao3 for fear of divorce

A

people who get divorced eventually get remarried, suggesting divorce isn’t a big enough reason to not get married

2012 - 1/3 of marriages were remarriages from divorcees

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25
Q

trends in cohabitation

A

there were 3.5 million cohabitating couples in 2022 with 20% of all unmarried adults cohabitating

these numbers are most prominent in 16-29 year olds and 45-60 year olds

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26
Q

3 reasons for increase in cohabitation

A

decline in stigma
changing positions of women
secularisation

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27
Q

increase in cohabitation - decline in stigma

A

sex outside marriage is more acceptable - in 1989 44% believed sex outside marriage was okay and this increased to 65% in 2012 showing a change in attitudes

young people are more likely to accept cohabitation - 88% of 18-24 year olds thought cohabitation was okay compared to 40% of those over 65

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28
Q

increase in cohabitation - changing positions of women

A

women have broken the glass ceiling and have access to the top jobs meanings they have less need for financial security that comes with marriage

liberal feminists would support this view as it shows there has been a march of progress due to legal changes e.g. equal pay act

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29
Q

increase in cohabitation - secularisation

A

young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit than those with as they are not influenced by religious teachings

religion places high emphasis on marriage so non religious young people don’t see marriage as an important life stage

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30
Q

arguments for cohabitation being a stepping stone to marriage (chester)

A

75% of couples who cohabit intended to marry each other, showing that cohabitation is part of the process of getting married

many see cohabitation as a trial marriage to see if they are compatible

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31
Q

arguments for cohabitation being an alternative to marriage (chandler)

A

cohabitation is a permanent alternative to marriage as it represents young people’s conscious attempt to create a personally negotiated and equal relationship - women who cohabit tend to do less housework

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32
Q

trends in same sex relationships

A

approximately 3.3% of uk population identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual and more are identifying with these labels - increasing since 2014

since the legalisation of same sex marriage in 2014, more same sex couples are getting married

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33
Q

3 reasons for the increase of same sex relationships

A

legal changes
decline in stigma
secularisation

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34
Q

increase in same sex relationships - legal changes

A

homosexual acts were decriminalised in 1967 for adults over 21, and this decreased to 18 to be equal with heterosexual people

since 2002, gay couples have the same adoption rights as married couples

civil partnerships act 2004 - gave same sex couples the same legal rights as married couples regarding pensions, inheritance and property

marriage act 2013 - first gay marriages took part in 2014

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35
Q

increase in same sex relationships - ao3 for legal changes

A

the new right criticise these changes as they go against the four functions of the family and provide inadequate socialisation

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36
Q

increase in same sex relationships - decline in stigma

A

there has been an increase in tolerance of homosexuality overtime

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37
Q

increase in same sex relationships - secularisation

A

many believe it isn’t a sin to be homosexual contrary to religious scriptures since there has been a decline in religious influence

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38
Q

arguments for homosexual relationships being similar to heterosexual relationships (weeks and weston)

A

homosexual people create family based on ‘friendship as kinship’ where they choose their family that offer the same security and stability as heterosexual families

same sex cohabitation can be seen as a quasi marriage where they cohabit as stable partners, contrasting with the 1970s which favoured casual relationships

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39
Q

arguments against homosexual relationships being similar to heterosexual relationships (allan and crow, einasdottir)

A

due to an absence of a legal framework, same sex couples have to negotiate their commitments and responsibilities more, making their relationships more flexible and less stable

though same sex couples welcomed their relationships to be legally recognised, they don’t want it to limit the negotiability of their relationship, suggesting they want their relationships to differ from heterosexual ones

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40
Q

3 reasons for increase in one person households

A

divorce patterns
marriage patterns
creative singlehood

41
Q

trends in one person households

A

there has been a big rise in people living alone - 3/10 households were one person since 2000

46% of one person households in 2022 were people of pensionable age, with men under 65 being the most likely group to live alone

42
Q

increase in one person households - divorce patterns

A

since after divorce the children often go to live with the mother, the father is more likely to leave the family home and live alone, which explains why men under 65 are most likely to live alone

43
Q

increase in one person households - marriage patterns

A

due to the decline in marriage, many people remain single which has risen by half since 1971 meaning many people will live alone

44
Q

increase in one person households - creative singlehood (stein)

A

many people now make the deliberate choice to live alone as they have more freedom and choice

liberal feminists would support this view as it shows women can now support themselves due to breaking through the glass ceiling to live alone

45
Q

general ao3 for one person households

A

some people may live alone as there aren’t enough partners available in their age group, especially for older widows as their partner may have died

46
Q

definition of living apart togethers

A

a couple in a significant relationship but are not married or cohabitating

47
Q

3 reasons for increase in living apart togethers

A

decline in stigma
changing positions of women
limited finances

48
Q

increase in living apart togethers - decline in stigma

A

it is now more socially acceptable to live separately, as 20% see living apart togethers as their ideal relationships due to having more financial independence and less arguments

49
Q

increase in living apart togethers - changing positions of women

A

liberal feminists argue there has been a march of progress where women are more financially independent so can afford to live alone due to the equal pay act, overachieving in education

radical feminists would support this as it supports separatism

50
Q

increase in living apart togethers - limited finances

A

couples may not have enough money to live together e.g. unable to afford a mortgage deposit

51
Q

general ao3 for living apart togethers

A

some actively choose to live apart so they have their own space

52
Q

trends in child bearing

A

51.4% of children are born outside of marriage, and women have children later at 29.9 years old to focus on their career

this means that due to fertility decreasing as women get older, women are having fewer children or are remaining childless

53
Q

2 reasons for changes in child bearing

A

decline in stigma
changing positions of women

54
Q

changes in child bearing - decline in stigma

A

it is more socially acceptable to have children later, outside of marriage or not at all

only 1/3 of 18-24 year olds think children should be born after marriage

55
Q

changes in child bearing - changing positions of women

A

women now focus on their career before starting a family, which liberal feminists would support as it shows there has been a march of progress

56
Q

trends in lone parent families

A

lone parent families make up 27% of all families with children

85% of lone parent families are headed by women

57
Q

2 reasons for increase in lone parent families

A

changing positions of women
increase in divorce

58
Q

increase in lone parent families - changing positions of women

A

women are now financially independent so they can support their children on their own, as well as with welfare benefits

59
Q

increase in lone parent families - increase in divorce

A

after a divorce children often stay with one parent predominately, perhaps due to the decline in stigma where it is socially acceptable to raise a child alone

60
Q

reasons for lone parent families being matrifocal

A

women tend to gain custody of children during a divorce as women are naturally suited to the expressive/nurturing role

some women choose to limit the father’s involvement as the changing positions of women allow them to support their child without his involvement

61
Q

ao3 for lone parent families being matrifocal

A

fathers 4 justice is a charity that campaigns for men to have the same rights as women when it comes to custody of children

the new right would support this as it gives children a male role model to be adequately socialised by

62
Q

the new right explanation for increase in lone parent families (murray)

A

the growth of lone parent families is caused by an overgenerous welfare state which they see as an perverse incentive - the welfare state rewards irresponsible behaviour by creating a dependency culture

this is referred to as the underclass who choose not to work because they know the government will support them financially anyway

the remedy for this is to abolish welfare benefits so people learn to support themselves

63
Q

ao3 for the new right explanation for increase in lone parent families

A

many lone parents are women, who earn less than men and a lack of affordable childcare means welfare benefits are essential for some people so abolishing them would lead to absolute poverty

64
Q

trends in reconstituted families

A

in 2011, reconstituted families made up 11% of couple families

65
Q

2 reasons for increase in reconstituted families

A

divorce/separation
courts

66
Q

increase in reconstituted families - divorce/separation

A

lone parents form new partnerships after divorce

67
Q

increase in reconstituted families - courts

A

children in stepfamilies are from the women’s previous relationships since children are more likely to remain with the mother after a divorce

68
Q

pros of being in a reconstituted family (ferri and smith)

A

stepfamilies are similar to first families and the involvement of stepparents in childcare creates a positive childhood experience

69
Q

cons of being in a reconstituted family (ferri and smith, allan and crow)

A

stepfamilies are at a greater risk of poverty since parents have to look after more children from the previous relationships

stepfamilies may experience divided loyalty and tensions between stepparents and stepchildren, or between stepchildren creating a negative childhood experience

HOWEVER mccarthy argues these tensions are not so different from intact families

70
Q

family type most prevalent in black families

A

higher proportion of lone parent households

71
Q

reasons why black families tend to be headed by a lone woman

A

evidence of family disorganisation - under slavery couples were sold separately and children stayed with their mother, this pattern has arguably persisted until today

the high rates of unemployment among black men means they are less able to provide for their families, leading to martial breakdown or desertion so the mother takes over that role

72
Q

general ao3 for black family being headed by a lone mother (mirza and reynolds)

A

this rather reflects the high value black women put on independence rather than the result of disorganisation

many apparently ‘lone’ parents are in stable relationships but do not cohabit

73
Q

family type most prevalent in asian families

A

higher proportion of extended families, especially in sikh, muslim and hindu families

74
Q

reasons why asian families tend to be extended

A

more british asians are in the childbearing age groups so they can have more children

asian culture often put high value on extended families

75
Q

supporting ao3 for asian families being extended (ballard)

A

extended families remain an important source of support for asian migrants during the 50s and 60s

the family was originally extended and patriarchal, so these strong links were maintained by living close to relatives and starting businesses

76
Q

arguments for the extended family being important today

A

willmott - the extended family hasn’t fully disappeared as relatives may still maintain frequent contact through visits and phone calls, creating a ‘dispersed extended family’

chamberlain - caribbean families continue to provide support as multiple nuclear families consisting of siblings, uncles and cousins who provide support in child rearing

bell - working class and middle class families relied on wider kin for support, and the beanpole family has become important as it is extended vertically through generations due to longer life expectancy and smaller family sizes

77
Q

arguments to the obligation to relatives (cheal and mason)

A

more is expected of women than men - there is a hierarchy where relatives are approached to help for household tasks, daughters and then sons

though daughters are more likely to take care of the elderly than sons, not all daughters take an equal role - it depends on how obligated they feel towards their relatives

78
Q

who would argue family diversity is not desirable?

A

functionalists
the new right

79
Q

family diversity is not desirable - functionalism (parsons)

A

the nuclear family suits the needs of society by providing a geographically and socially mobile workforce, and by performing the functions of primary socialisation and the stabilisation of adult personalities

the nuclear family also has a gendered division of labour between the husband and wife (instrumental/expressive role) which both are naturally suited for

since they believed a gendered division of labour is normal, any diversity could lead to serious social problems as children are inadequately socialised and turn to gangs and crime

80
Q

family diversity is not desirable - ao3 for functionalism

A

radical feminists argue functionalism ignores the dark side of the family where there is always a threat of domestic violence and child abuse

lacks contemporary relevance as the uk has become multicultural with religious and ethnic subcultures

81
Q

family diversity is not desirable - the new right (benson)

A

the nuclear family is the most functional and natural family and that family diversity is the cause of all social problems e.g. high crime rates, failure in education

they see lone parent families as unnatural and harmful to children as they cannot discipline their children properly and are a burden to the welfare state - it discourages men from working and creates a dependency culture

parents who are unmarried are more likely to separate suggesting cohabitation is unstable as it allows couples to avoid commitment and responsibility, making society broken

the solution is to return traditional values e.g. marriage by making divorce difficult to access, giving tax breaks to married couples and abolishing the welfare state

82
Q

family diversity is not desirable - ao3 for the new right

A

little or no evidence that lone parents are part of a dependency culture

feminists argue the nuclear family is based off of the patriarchal oppression of women by preventing women to work and denying them a equal say in decision making

since poorer groups are more likely to cohabit, it may be poverty that causes cohabiting couples to separate rather that not marrying

83
Q

who/what arguments are there for family diversity being desirable?

A

rapaport and rapaport
postmodernism
individualisation thesis
negotiated family
connectedness thesis

84
Q

family diversity is desirable - rapaport and rapaport

A

the main family type in the uk is no longer the nuclear family as we have a range of family types (organisational diversity)

family diversity represents the freedom that people now have to choose and the widespread acceptance of different cultures and way of life

85
Q

family diversity is desirable - postmodernism (stacey)

A

the changes in the position of women has made family types more diverse - many women reject the traditional stay at home role so choose different families that suit their desire to work

the ‘divorce extended’ family type is where members are connected by divorce rather than marriage, female members such as former in laws may help with childcare

this shows that it is pointless to make generalisations about the family as it is what an individual chooses to call family and is based on their choices on how they live their life

86
Q

family diversity is desirable - ao3 for postmodernism

A

functionalism and the new right would argue the nuclear family is essential for society to function as it performs adequate socialisation for its members

87
Q

family diversity is desirable - individualisation thesis (giddens and beck)

A

in the past, people’s lives were dictated by social structures and roles e.g. social class, gender, ethnicity which prevented people from choosing their own life course - they were expected to marry and take up either the instrumental/expressive role

today, people are no longer tied down by these social structures and have become disembedded from traditional roles giving us more freedom

rather than the standard biography, we now have a do it yourself biography which has created more family diversity

88
Q

family diversity is desirable - ao3 for individualisation thesis

A

our decisions are often made within a social context

the structures of class, gender, ethnicity have not disappeared - women may have gained the right to vote, divorce but they don’t have total freedom, suggesting it exaggerates the amount of freedom and choice people have in life

89
Q

family diversity is desirable - negotiated family (beck)

A

the expectations of each family member is based on the needs of each individual family - this shows that family roles are negotiated between themselves and the family’s needs

for example, a teenager could be a carer for a disabled parent, the role of a father may alter after a divorce

this shows there is more freedom in family life but also more uncertainity as family ties become unpredictable and more flexible

90
Q

family diversity is desirable - ao3 for the negotiated family

A

the new right argue the negotiated family is a negative thing as it goes against the traditional nuclear family

91
Q

family diversity is desirable - connectedness thesis (smart)

A

rather than having unlimited choice and being disembedded, our choices are made within a web of connectedness e.g. social class, gender, family and personal values

we live in a network of existing relationships which strongly influence our options in relationships, while some people can negotiate relationships they may be restricted in their choice

this challenges the assumption of pure relationships - some may need to stay in a relationship for money rather than love as it is part of their web of connectedness

92
Q

family diversity is desirable - ao3 for connectedness thesis

A

gender norms tend to dictate that women should take custody and full care of the children leaving men freer to choose their relationships, they are also paid more so they have more freedom

the relative powerlessness of women means they are often trapped in abusive relationships - the dark side of the family

93
Q

who would argue there isn’t much family diversity?

A

functionalists
chester
weeks
weston

94
Q

there isn’t much family diversity - functionalism

A

despite the increase in divorce and lone parent families, many couples get married or remarried eventually suggesting society as a whole still values the institution of marriage

95
Q

there isn’t much family diversity - ao3 for functionalism

A

the new right would look at family diversity with concern as it represent the breaking down of the nuclear family

96
Q

there isn’t much family diversity - chester

A

the importance of family diversity has been exaggerated - the nuclear family has simply changed into the neo conventional family where both spouses work making the division of labour more equal

many decide to cohabit but it is merely a stepping stone to marriage

97
Q

there isn’t much family diversity - ao3 for chester

A

some see cohabitation as an alternative to marriage

98
Q

there isn’t much family diversity - weeks

A

same sex relationships are now similar to heterosexual relationships due to increased social acceptance

99
Q

there isn’t much family diversity - weston

A

same sex families are now regarded as quasi marriages - they are similar to heterosexual families as they have the same adoption rights to start a family

this doesn’t indicate family diversity as they are already similar

families + households (6 decks)

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