Family and Households Flashcards

Question

explain the meaning of high divorce rates according to Functionalists

Answer 1

FUNCTIONALISTS: They argue that a high divorce rate does not necessarily prove that marriage as a social institution is under threat. It simply means that people have higher expectations of marriage today. The high rate of remarriage shows people’s continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.

Answer 2

INTERACTIONISTS AND THE PERSONAL LIFE PERSPECTIVE: They aim to understand the meaning that divorce has to the individual and recognise that it varies from being positive and necessary to a negative emotional development. They accept that divorce can cause problems for individuals involved, but recognise that it has become normalised and that family life can adapt to it without disintegrating – it is just s transition in the life course.

Answer 3

- changing social attitudes - secularisation - rising expectations of women - changing role of women - feminist - modernity and individualism - changes in divorce legislation

Answer 4

CHANGING SOCIAL ATTITUDES: Divorce is no longer associated with shame and stigma and is increasingly accepted as fact of life. This reflects the fact that norms and values associated with both marriage and divorce have relaxed and divorce has been 'normalised'. A long term social trend is the shift away from monogamy to serial monogamy. Many people see monogamy as unrealistic and there is less pressure to stay in an empty shell marriage

Answer 5

SECULARISATION: increase in divorce may be partly due to secularisation. Religious beliefs and vows have a less direct influence on large sections of the population and therefore there are fewer people who believe that marriage has to be 'til death do us part'. Furthermore, many religions have softened their opposition to divorce. The increase in civil ceremonies also shows that marriage is less likely to be seen as a religious institution,

Answer 6

RISING EXPECTATIONS OF MARRIAGE: Social expectations about marriage have changed. More people demand higher standards from their partners and want emotional and sexual compatibility, equality and companionship. In the past, when divorce was less acceptable people would have been more likely to stay in an empty shell marriage and put up with things, however today people are less likely to tolerate an unfulfilling relationship. This is linked to the ideology of romantic love - an idea that has become more dominant, whereas in the past people were unlikely to have high expectations of marriage.

Answer 7

RISING EXPECTATIONS OF MARRIAGE: Functionalists argue that the increase in divorce is indicative and reflective of higher expectations attached to marriage rather than declining social significance. They also point to the continuing popularity of marriage and remarriage. the latter illustrating that people are dissatisfied with a particular partner, not with the institution of marriage itself. However, feminists are critical of this view and argue that the oppression of women within marriage is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce (reflected in the fact that it is mainly women who seek divorce)

Answer 8

CHANGING ROLE OF WOMEN: Feminists note that women's expectations of marriage have radically changed and this reflects their improved status. Fewer women no longer have to stay unhappily married because they are financially dependent upon their husbands. Therefore in the past women were trapped economically, however today they have greater financial independence and there is more state help for single parent families. In 1950, 75% of divorce petitions were filed by men by 1990 over 75% were filed by women.

Answer 9

FEMINIST EXPLANATIONS FOR INCREASE IN DIVORCE: While there have been big improvements in women's position in the public sphere of employment, education, politics etc. Feminists argue that in the private sphere of family and personal relationships, change has been limited and slow. They argue that marriage remains patriarchal with men benefitting from their wives 'triple shift' of paid work, domestic work and emotion work. Feminists believe that women are more conscious of patriarchal oppression and more confident about rejecting it

Answer 10

MODERNITY AND INDIVIDUALISATION: Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) argue that in modern society, traditional norms such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals. As a result, individuals become free to pursue their own self-interest. This is known as the individualisation thesis. Relationships thus become more fragile as individuals become unwilling to remain with a partner out of a sense of duty, tradition or for the sake of the children, if the relationship fails to deliver personal fulfilment and satisfy their needs. This results in a higher divorce rate which normalises and further strengthens the belief that marriage exists to provide personal fulfilment.

Answer 11

CHANGES IN DIVORCE LEGISLATION: Changes in divorce law have generally made it easier and cheaper to end marriages but this in itself is not the cause of increases in divorce. Legal changes often reflect other changes in society, especially attitudinal change.

Answer 12

DIVORCE LEGISLATION: - 1857 Matrimonial causes act - 1937 Divorce reform act - 1949 Legal Aid and Advice act - 1969 divorce reform act - 1984 matrimonial and family proceedings act - 1996 family law act - 2004 civil partnership act - 2007 appeal court ruling - 2014 same sex marriage act

Answer 13

1857 MATRIOMONIAL CAUSES ACT - This made divorce available through the courts rather than having to obtain an Act of Parliament which was only available to the very wealthy. The law influenced by the idea of matrimonial offence - the notion that one or both spouses had wronged the other. However, husbands could divorce unfaithful wives for adultery but women also had to prove other offences such as cruelty in addition to adultery. This anomaly was not removed until 1923

Answer 14

1937 Divorce Reform Act - | This law widened the grounds to include cruelty, desertion and insanity.

Answer 15

1949 LEGAL AID AND ADVICE ACT - This provided free legal advice and paid solicitors fees for those who could not afford them

Answer 16

1969 DIVORCE REFORM ACT - This came into effect in 1971 and reflected the liberalisation of divorce legislation. With this reform, the idea of matrimonial offence was no longer emphasised. It defined the grounds for divorce as the 'irretrievable breakdown of marriage'. Unreasonable behaviour, adultery etc. could be cited but importantly people could divorce if their marriage has failed. This made divorce considerably easier. Divorce was available after 2 years agreed separation or 5 years if only one spouse agreed to the divorce.

Answer 17

1984 MATRIMONIAL AND FAMILY PROCEEDINGS ACT: this reduced the period a couple had to be married from 3 years to 1 years before they could petition for divorce

Answer 18

1996 FAMILY LAW ACT - this was designed to make divorce a more carefully considered decision and reduced conflict in proceedings. It encouraged couples to seek mediation but allowed divorce by agreement, after a period of reflection (9 months, 15 if there were children). It also introduced the 'no-fault' divorce.

Answer 19

2004 CIVIL PARTNERSHIP ACT - This allowed the legal dissolution of a civil partnership on the same grounds as for marriage - irretrievable breakdown

Answer 20

2007 APPEAL COURT RULING - In divorce settlements, the principle of equality was to apply - so the starting point is a 50-50 split of all assets including salaries and pension rights.

Answer 21

2014 Same Sex Marriage Act - as same sex marriages became legal, the same grounds for divorce would apply to both same-se and opposite-sex couples

Answer 22

- The increase in the number of children born outside of marriage - women are having children later - women are having fewer children - more women are remaining childless

Answer 23

In 1961 94% of births were registered to married couples. In 2011 the figure had decreased to 53%. However, nearly all of these births are jointly registered by both parents and in most cases the parents are cohabiting. In 1971 only 45% of births outside of marriage were jointly registered, whereas in 1992 this rose to 76%. In 2011, 84% of births were registered by parents who were either married, cohabiting or in a civil partnership. According to Brown (1995) this trend (the increase in the number of children born outside of marriage) reflects a reduction in ‘shot gun weddings’ where couples married to legitimize a pregnancy. However, the statistics should be viewed with caution as they provide only a snapshot picture of family life, which is in it-self transitional - over half of mothers who have children outside of marriage, marry in the future.

Answer 24

Between 1971 and 2012 the average age a woman had her first children rose from 24 to 28.1 years. In 2012 the average age of a mother is 29.7 years and a father is 32.6 years. 49% of babies were born to mothers over 30 and 65% of babies were born to fathers over 30.

Answer 25

Whilst the number slightly increased at the beginning of the (21st, most women are having fewer children. The average number of children per women fell from 2.95 in 1964 to a record low of 1.63 in 2001, rising to 1.91 by 2011 (the increase is largely accounted for by non-UK born women having a greater number of children).

Answer 26

Whilst the number slightly increased at the beginning of the (21st, most women are having fewer children. The average number of children per women fell from 2.95 in 1964 to a record low of 1.63 in 2001, rising to 1.91 by 2011 (the increase is largely accounted for by non-UK born women having a greater number of children).

Answer 27

In 2013 1 in 5 women reaching the age of 45 were childless.

Answer 28

Reconstituted families are essentially blended families or stepfamilies. These families are mainly born out of post-divorce parenting (however they can be constructed by widows too), where divorced people or single parents remarry and at least one partner has a child or children from a previous relationship (marriage or cohabitation). This type of family unit has increased along with the rise in divorce. Reconstituted families now account for 10% of all families with dependent children in Britain. In 86% of reconstituted families, at least one child is from the woman’s previous relationship, while in 11% there is at least one child from the man’s previous relationship. In 3%, there are children from both partners’ previous relationships. A growing trend today, is that an increasing number of children experience co-parenting where they spend a part of the week with their mother and stepfather and the rest with their biological parent. Some experts see this as a bi-nuclear family (two separate post break up households).

Answer 29

According to Allan and Crow (2001) reconstituted families may face particular problems of divided loyalties and issues such as contact with the non-resident parent.

Answer 30

McCarthy et al (2003) argue that there is great diversity amongst reconstituted families – some have tensions whilst others have no more tensions than intact conventional nuclear families. Ferri and Smith (1998) found that reconstituted families are at greater risk of poverty because often there are more children to support and often the stepfather may have to support children from a previous relationship. Nevertheless, they did conclude that the involvement of step-parents in childcare and childrearing is usually a positive one.

Answer 31

Fewer people today are living as couples, there has been a big increase in the number of people living alone and as a result this is one of the key trends in contemporary British society. In 2006, almost 3 in 10 households (6.8 million people) contained only one person, nearly three times the figure for 1961. In 2013, 3 in 10 households in the UK contained only one person, (7.7 million people) of which 4.2 million were aged 16 to 64. Of those in this age group, the majority (58%) were male. 62% of men aged 16 to 64 living alone have never married compared with 49% of women living alone in the same age group. The increase in separation and divorce has also created more one-person households, especially among men under 65. This is because, following a divorce, children are more likely to live with their mother, their father is more likely to leave the family home and become a single person household for some time. Additionally, the decline in the numbers marrying, coupled with the trend towards people marrying later means that more people are remaining single or experience some time living in a single person household. The number of people in this age group living alone has tripled since 1961. For those aged 65 or over, the pattern is reversed; at this age the majority of people living alone (69%) were female. This is partly due to demographic factors such as the ageing population and that there are more women than men in the total population aged 65 or over due to women’s higher life expectancy. There are 1.7 million widowed women aged 65 or over living alone in the UK, three times the number of men. Pensioner one-person households have doubled since 1961.

Answer 32

Stein (1976) argues that a growing number of people are deliberately choosing to live alone, what he calls ‘creative singlehood’. However, it is often also assumed that those who are not living with a partner do not have one, whether from choice or not. However research by Duncan and Phillips for the British Social Attitudes Survey (2007) found that about 1 in 10 adults are ‘living apart together’ or ‘LATs’ – they are in a significant relationship, but are not married or cohabiting.

Answer 33

Gay men, lesbians and bisexual people have been parents for a long time! Some have children from a previous heterosexual relationship, some adopt and others become foster parents. More recently, LGB people have entered into surrogacy agreements and co-parenting arrangements. The campaign group Stonewall has worked hard to ensure that all lesbian, gay and bisexual people have the same legal rights to parenthood as everyone else because they know that gay people are just as capable of creating loving and supportive families and they want to make sure that LGB people know parenting is an option for everyone – regardless of their sexual orientation. In the UK it is legal for lesbian, gay and bisexual people to both adopt and foster children. According to the British Association for Adoption & Fostering, growing numbers of gay men and lesbians have been entering into joint adoption proceedings since adoption for same-sex couples became legal in 2005 (lesbian, gay and bisexual people have always been able to adopt as individuals). The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008 and the Civil Partnership Act 2004 have made it easier for lesbian couples to secure parental rights for any children they conceive through artificial insemination. In 2011 there were 63,000 same sex cohabiting couples, 59,000 civil partnered couples and 5,000 same sex families with dependent children. This can be contrasted to the gay lifestyle adopted by many in the 1970s, which largely rejected monogamy and family life in favour of casual relationships. EINASDOTTIR (2011) notes that, while many gays and lesbians welcome the opportunity to have their partnerships legally recognised, others fear that it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of relationships and enforce heterosexual norms on gay and lesbian relationships.

Answer 34

In 2010, The Centre for Family Research at the University of Cambridge conducted interviews for Stonewall with 82 children and young people who have lesbian, gay or bisexual parents to learn more about their experiences both at home and at school. The study, ‘Different Families’, found that very young children with gay parents tend not to see their families as being any different to those of their peers. Many of the older children said they saw their families as special and different, but only because all families are special and different - though some felt that their families were a lot closer than other people’s families. The report found that children with gay parents like having gay parents and would not want things to change, but that sometimes they wish that other people were more accepting. The research revealed problems faced by some children of gay parents at school – such as widespread use of homophobic language, homophobic bullying and the exclusion of their families and LGB people in school. But the children interviewed had very clear recommendations for schools in how to tackle these issues.

Answer 35

There were 2.9 million SPFs in 2020, which accounts for 14.7% of families in the UK; this number has not changed since 2008 when there were 2.8 million SPFs. (However, this figure has not grown significantly from 1.7 million in 2001) Today, 1 in 4 children live in a single parent family.

Answer 36

- SPFs are gendered as result of out society believing women are best placed with children. 9 out of 10 SPFs are headed by single mothers. In 2019, women accounted for 92% of lone parents with dependent children. Women are more likely to take the main caring responsibilities for any children when relationships break down and therefore become lone parents. This reflects a widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an expressive or nurturing role. As a result, divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers. Research also shows that in general, men are less willing than women to give up work to care for children. - In contrast to the media representation and stereotype of lone parents (as young foolish girls), the average age of lone parents with dependent children in the Uk in 2019 was 39 year old (38 for single mums and 45 for single dads) In 2019, 45% of lone parents were aged 40 or over and only 2% of lone parents were aged under 20, the same percentage as ten years earlier That age looks set to rise too as the single parent statistics show that women over forthy-five who are having a child and not registering a father on the birth certificate has doubled since 2006 - In the past, most SPFS emerged as a result of divorce. However, in 2011, 51% of lone parents with dependent children have never been married, an increase from 42% in 2001. One contributory factor to this is the increase in cohabiting couples in 2011. 25% of live births in England and Wales. It also reflects the reality that some mothers are single and this is by choice There are differences in the marital status of male and female lone parents with dependent children; 35% of male lone parents have never been married, compared with 52% of female lone parents. 7% of male lone parents with dependent children are widowed, more than double the percentage of female lone parents

Answer 37

SPFS are not necessarily a permanent state but a transitionary one. This reflects the notion of a family life cycle. A university of Sheffield study (2019) has shown that over a six year period one third of families were SPFs at some point Duncan and Rogers (1990) found that less than a third of children born into a single parent family stayed in one throughout their childhood

Answer 38

SPFs have been the focus of much debate over the last few decades. Right-wing commentators (politicians and journalists/newspapers that are politically conservative) idealise the nuclear family and have traditionally been critical of SPFs. The last time the Conservatives were in power (1979-1997) they were very vocal regarding their disdain of SPFs (less vocal since returning to power as part of the coalition government in 2010 – but still critical). They were critical of them largely because of three key factors.

Answer 39

The right wing were critical of SPFs as they believe they were: Expensive - There's either one or no income therefore this is the type of family which is disproportionally more likely to dependent on benefits (welfare benefits) Lacking Moral Responsibility - SPFs are content to live off the state rather than be self-sufficient and independent. They represent the breakdown of the traditional nuclear family / many children are born outside of marriage or it reflects a marital breakdown Dysfunctional - SPFS are critical of single parent families as many children are brought up and are denied two parental role models. They are particularly concerned about the number of young boys who lack a father figure and believe this will lead to behaviour problems in young boys

Answer 40

Reflecting these views, right-wing commentators saw SPFs as a social problem linked to rising levels of crime, delinquency, educational under-achievement etc. The New Right commentator MURRAY (1984) saw the growth of SPFs as resulting from an over-generous welfare state rewarding irresponsible behaviour. Therefore, when last in government the Conservatives set up the Child Support Agency (CSA) in 1993. This was designed to reduce the number of SPFs by stressing the financial responsibility of parents by enforcing absent parents to financially support their children. They believed that parents may think twice before leaving their family/children if they knew they would be forced to pay maintenance

Answer 41

However, those on the political left (politicians and journalists/media and most sociologists) attribute many of the problems encountered by some SPFs to poverty rather than a reflection of being a particular type of family unit or type. They would question the assumption made by many on the political right that benefits act as a financial incentive to become a SPF as there is significant link between low living standards and SPFs. Most evidence suggests that single parents who are reliant on state benefits do not enjoy being dependent and would prefer to work to improve their standard of living, if it was practical to do so.

Answer 42

Extended family refer to any group of kin (people related by blood, marriage or adoption) extended beyond the nuclear family. The family may be extended vertically e.g. grandparents or horizontally (e.g. aunts, cousins) or both. The classic extended family lived together or in very close proximity

Answer 43

- 1996: extended families (EFs) made up 167,000 of all households and by 2020 they had increased to 278,000. - Households containing multiple families are rapidly increasing however despite this increase they represent a very small proportion (1%) of all households in 2020.

Answer 44

Extended families living a one household more common in south Asian families e.g. Pakistani, Bangladeshi families

Answer 45

Research by CHARLES (2005) in Swansea found that the classical three generational EF all living under one roof is now 'all but extinct'. The only significant exceptions she found were among the city's Bangladeshi community.

Answer 46

Willmott's (1998) argues that in the main where EF structures continue to exist they are 'dispersed extended families'. This is where relatives are geographically separated but maintain contact through visits and phone calls etc. Today, the modern extended families are dispersed extended families.

Answer 47

Willmott's research reflected the findings of Rosser and Harris (1965) who found that while the Nuclear family had become the focus of family life, the extended family continued to have a role. They argued that high levels of individual, social and geographical mobility and dispersal did not prevent the maintenance of high levels of contact between extended kin. Acknowledging that the nature, function and role of the EF had been modified they favoured the term 'modified extended family'. This describes a condition of nuclear families in a state of partial dependence - this differentiates this type of family structure from both classical EF and the NF. - still have roles and are connected in each other lives

Answer 48

Chamberlain's (1999) study of Caribbean families in Britain found that, despite being geographically dispersed, they continue to provide support which can range from emotional, financial and practical support. She describes them as 'multiple nuclear families' with close and frequent contact. Overall evidence suggests that an EF structure continues to play an important role for many people today, providing both practical and emotional support. However, this is different from the classic EF whose members worked and lived together and were bound by mutual obligations.

Answer 49

Finch (1989) argues that the nature of all family relationships are largely determined by gender, ethnicity, economics, generation and region

Answer 50

Practical - childcare, transport etc Financial - financial assistance Emotional - childcare. provide comfort and resolve problems, and technological advances to keep in contact

Answer 51

Immigration into Britain over the last 60-70 years has contributed to greater ethnic diversity. 2011 census data shows that 86% of the UK population (54 million) were White. Of the 14% belonging to an ethnic minority, the main groups were Asian and British Asian: Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi (7.5%); Black and Black British: Black Caribbean, Black African or Black other (3.3%); Chinese (0.8%) and other (2.2%). Greater ethnic diversity has contributed to the types of families and households found in contemporary Britain.

Answer 52

BLACK FAMILIES: Black Caribbean and Black African people have a higher proportion of lone parent families. In 2012, just over half of all families with dependent children headed by a black person were lone parent families. This compared with only one in nine Asian families and just under a quarter for the population as a whole. The high rate of female-headed lone parent black families has sometimes been seen as evidence of family disorganization that can be traced back to slavery or more recently, to high rates of unemployment among black males. Under slavery, when couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother. It is argued that this established a pattern of family life that persists today. It is also argued that male unemployment and poverty have meant that black men are less able to provide for their family, resulting in higher rates of desertion or marital breakdown.

Answer 53

Mirza (1997) argues that the higher rate of lone parent families among blacks is not the result of disorganization, but rather reflects the high value that black women place on independence. Additionally, Reynolds (1997) argues that the statistics are misleading, in that many apparently ‘lone’ parents are in stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships

Answer 54

ASIAN FAMILIES: Asian households tend to be larger than other ethnic groups, at 4.4 persons per household for Bangladeshi families, 4.3 for Pakistani and 3 persons for Indian families. This can be compared with 2.3 for both Black Caribbean and White British households and 2.4 for the population as a whole. Such households are sometimes multi-generational and include three generations, often organised through a network of males and bound together by ideas of brotherhood and loyalty, but most are nuclear rather than extended families. Larger households are partly a result of the younger age profile of British Asians, since a higher proportion are in the childbearing age groups compared with the population as a whole. Additionally, larger Asian households also to some extent reflect the value placed on the extended family in Asian cultures

Answer 55

However, practical considerations, such as the need for assistance when migrating to Britain are also important. Ballard (1982 and 1990) found that extended families provided an important source of support among Asian migrants during the 1950s and 60s. In this early period of migration, houses were often shared by extended families and whilst today most Asian households are nuclear, relatives often live nearby reflecting the importance of kinship networks. Today, Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus are still more likely than other ethnic groups to live in extended family units. Furthermore Ballard (1990) found that whilst many marriages are largely arranged and are seen as a contract between two families, children today increasingly expect to have some say in their marriage partners and couples today expect more independence from their kin. Data collected in the Policy Studies Institute’s Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities (1997) found that divorce, single parents and smaller families were now found within the British Asian community, they were more likely than other ethnic groups to marry and marry earlier than their white peers and cohabitation, separation and divorce were relatively rare. There was also some evidence that many couples including those with children, still continue to live in the same house as the male’s parents.

Answer 56

- cultural diversity - life-stage diversity - organisational diversity - generational diversity - social-class diversity

Answer 57

RAPOPORT and RAPOPORT (1982) see diversity as central today. They claim it is the norm and serves people’s needs, rather than causing family decline. They identify five types of diversity (CLOGS): Cultural diversity: caused by migration - ethnic groups have different family structures, e.g. more children, larger families, multi-generational families etc. Life-stage diversity: through an individual’s life course they are likely to experience a variety of different structures, e.g. childless couple, parents with young children, retired couples, widow etc. Organisational diversity: different ways of organising the household, e.g. single or dual earners and/or joint or segregated conjugal roles etc. Generational diversity: depending on the era in which an individual is raised, they may have different views towards different household structures: attitudes to cohabitation, divorce, SPFs, same-sex relationships etc. Social class diversity: the income of a family can influence its structure, e.g. middle class women pursuing careers may choose to have children later, class differences in child-rearing practices etc.

Answer 58

EVERSLEY and BONNERJEA (1982) also highlight how family types may also be linked to geographical location and local influences. They identify six different types of area which are connected to different types of family organisation: The affluent South: more likely to have mobile two-parent nuclear families. The ‘geriatric wards’: coastal areas which attract retired and elderly couples who may live some distance from relatives. Older industrial areas: more likely to have traditional family structures and relationships and older populations. Recently declined industrial areas: more likely to be found in the Midlands, have been prosperous but have recently declined. Young families often have moved there and have little support from extended kin. Rural areas: families who work in agriculture and related areas of the economy and tend to be extended and traditional. However, many of these areas have been taken over by commuters. Inner cities: often experience high levels of social deprivation and a larger turnover of inhabitants, many single person households and a higher proportion of migrants. There are also many single parent families and people are more likely to be isolated from kin.

Answer 59

Despite increased family diversity and plurality many sociologists argue that there is a strong and powerful ideology which represents the nuclear family as the idealised norm and the typical family type. Politicians, media and advertising promote this view of the family, which Leach (1965) referred to as the ‘cereal packet image’ of the family. Oakley and Thorne (1992) are critical of this ideology and how the nuclear family has been elevated to a high status and glorified in society arguing that it falsifies reality and obscures the diversity and plurality of contemporary family life. They claim that the ideology of the nuclear family is misleading and stereotypical. Some modernist social commentators suggest that the institution of marriage and by implication the family are under threat as a consequence of these trends. Sociologists have different views on these trends and the diversity that it brings to families and households, this largely reflects the theory and perspective of the sociologist:

Answer 60

- increase in divorce - secularisation - cohabitation - same sex couples - increase in single parent families - fewer people having children - bi-nuclear family - co-parenting - reconstituted families increasing - decline in marriage

Answer 61

Functionalism: They have a preference for the nuclear family and place a high value on it. They see the nuclear family as uniquely suited to meeting the needs of modern society and are likely to consider other family types to be dysfunctional or deviant. Nevertheless, whilst functionalists acknowledge diverse family trends and structures they argue that the changes to the family have actually been minor and the basic features of family life remain remarkably unchanged. CHESTER (1985) argues that the majority of people are not choosing to live in alternatives to the nuclear family on a long term basis, but it is a reflection of the life-cycle of the family which is fluid. He claims that most people experience the nuclear family experience at some part of their lives and aspire to it and that statistics on household composition are misleading as they only provide a snapshot picture of a single moment in time. CHESTER notes that there has been some increased diversity, but argues that the only significant change has been the evolution of the traditional nuclear family into a neo-conventional nuclear family. This is composed of dual earners rather than the traditional division of labour between a male breadwinner and female homemaker. For CHESTER then, the extent and importance of family diversity has been exaggerated. He also observes that most diverse family structures actually conform to a modified version of the nuclear unit.

Answer 62

New Right: They adopt a conservative and anti-feminist perspective and are firmly opposed to family diversity. They hold the view that there is only one ideal/correct/normal/natural family type – the nuclear family. They support the conventional patriarchal nuclear family with the male as the breadwinner and the female in the mother/housewife role – which they see as natural. They see family diversity as a product of family breakdown which leads to a lack of discipline, educational failure, crime and a dependency culture. They are opposed to most of the changing family patterns that have emerged over more recent decades. They are particularly critical of lone parent families and claim that the collapse of relationships between cohabiting couples is the main cause of an increase in lone parent families. BENSON (2006) analysed data on the parents of over 15,000 babies and found that over the first three years of a baby’s life, the rate of family breakdown was much higher among cohabiting couples: 20%, compared with only 6% among married couples. In the New Right view, only marriage, which requires a deliberate commitment, can provide a stable environment in which to bring up children. New Right commentators and many Conservative politicians have used such evidence to support the view that both the family and society at large are ‘broken’. They regard many laws and policies as undermining the conventional nuclear family and argue that only a return to traditional values can prevent social disintegration

Answer 63

Feminism: They see the conventional nuclear family as based on patriarchal oppression and the fundamental cause of gender inequality. They are critical of the New Right and OAKLEY (1997) believes their view of the family is a negative reaction against the feminist campaign for women’s equality. They see family diversity as a positive and liberating trend where individuals, particularly females are able to live in units which reflect their own individual choice. They like the changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation and divorce and the plurality of household types which are more common in contemporary Britain. They do not interpret these trends in a negative way or see them as evidence of a ‘supposed decline’ in the institution of marriage and the family.

Answer 64

Unlike many modernists such as functionalists and the New Right who emphasise the dominance of the nuclear family, others such as postmodernists emphasise family diversity. Postmodernists argue that greater diversity and choice brings with it advantages, such as it gives individuals greater freedom to plot their own life course – to choose the kind of family and personal relationships that meet their needs. STACEY (1988) argues that greater freedom and choice has particularly benefitted women, who she regards as being the main agents of changes in the family. It has enabled them to free themselves from patriarchal oppression and to shape their family arrangements to meet their needs. However, many recognise that greater freedom of choice in relationships means a greater risk of instability

Answer 65

Life course - life course means when an individual controls their own life choices an routes instead of following societal expectations

Answer 66

Postmodernists argue that since the late (20th society has entered a new postmodern phase which is increasingly individualistic, fragmented and diverse and is characterised by rapid social change and less predictability. Postmodernists believe that today we have much greater choice about our lifestyles and personal relationships and this has increased family diversity, so much that we can no longer talk about a single, stable, dominant family type.

Answer 67

Reflecting these changes, MORGAN (2011) argues that it is pointless making large scale generalisations about ‘the family’ as if it were a single thing. Rather, a family is simply whatever arrangements those involved choose to call their family. He prefers the concept of family practices, rather than family structure, as a way of describing how we construct our life course and relationships. In his view, families are not concrete ‘things’ or structures – they are simply what people actually do - the routine actions through which we create our sense of ‘being a family member’, such as feeding the children or doing the DIY. However, he does recognise that while life course and family practices are the actions of individuals, they take place in the context of wider social structures and norms which influence the beliefs we have about our rights, responsibilities and obligations within the family. These may still exert an influence over family members’ expectations and actions. For example, gender norms and differences in job opportunities and social policy may dictate that males are the main breadwinners and this may influence individuals’ expectations of each other within the family.

Answer 68

Family practices describe how we construct out life course and relationships as Morgan believes families are not 'concrete' or structures - families are routine actions which we practice to make us feel the sense of us being a family member

Answer 69

From this perspective, sociologists should focus their attention on how people create their own diverse family lives and practices. One way of exploring this is through life course analysis. This usually involves in-depth unstructured interviews with family members to explore the meanings and understand the choices people make about family life and relationships. Sociologists such as HAREVEN (1978) use life course analysis to understand family life. This approach starts from the idea that there is flexibility and variation in people’s family lives – in the choices and decisions they make and in the timing and sequence of the events and turning points in their lives. Individuals have greater freedom to plot their own life course, for example, these might include the decision if and when to have a baby, whether to come out as gay, to leave a relationship, to move into sheltered accommodation etc.

Answer 70

Whilst not accepting everything postmodernists say about the nature of society today, GIDDENS and BECK have been influenced by postmodernist ideas. They explore the effects of increasing individual choice upon families and relationships. Their views have become known as the individualisation thesis. The thesis argues that in the past, people’s lives were defined by fixed roles that largely prevented people from choosing their own life course. For example, everyone was expected to marry and take up their appropriate gender role. By contrast, individuals in today have fewer such certainties or fixed roles to follow. Therefore, we have become dis-embedded from traditional roles and structures, leaving us with more freedom to choose how we lead our lives. As BECK (1992) puts it, the ‘standard biography’ or life course that people followed in the past has been replaced by the ‘do-it-yourself biography’ that individuals today must construct for themselves – this has huge implications for family relationships and family diversity

Answer 71

the standard biography in the post would be doing what society expected of you e.g Marry, have the traditional family whereas 'do-it-yourself' means individuals must choose their own life course and goals

Answer 72

GIDDENS (1992) argues that in recent decades the family and marriage have been transformed by greater choice (largely a consequence of improved contraception, allowing sex and intimacy rather than reproduction to become the main reason for a relationship’s existence) and equality (which women have gained because of feminism and greater opportunities in education and work). He sees the ‘pure relationship’ as typical of late modern society, which is no longer held together by norms, religion and laws. Its key feature is that it exists solely to satisfy each partner’s needs and therefore is likely to survive only so long as both partners think it is in their own interest to do so. Therefore, individuals are free to choose to enter and leave relationships as they see fit. Relationships become a part of the process of the individual’s self-discovery or self-identity: trying different relationships becomes a way of establishing ‘who we are’. He argues that in this way, the ‘pure relationship’ has modelled itself on same-sex relationships which have historically been less bound by tradition and more democratic. However, GIDDENS recognises that with more choice, personal relationships inevitably become less stable and in turn produce greater family diversity. Again this models same-sex relationships, where families have traditionally been actively created in diverse ways to serve individual needs.

Answer 73

Reflecting the views central to the individualisation thesis, BECK (1992) argues that we now live in a ‘risk’ society where tradition has less influence on people’s lives and they have more choice. Today’s risks contrast to earlier times when roles were more fixed and people had less choice in their lives. For example, people were expected to marry, to have children, to have clear gender roles, to stay together etc. Although this traditional picture of family life was unequal, it provided a clear, stable and predictable basis for family life by defining each member’s role and responsibilities. BECK believes that the traditional patriarchal family has been undermined by greater gender equality and individualism. As a result contemporary families are less likely to conform to any norm, but vary in relation to the wishes and expectations of their members. He calls this the negotiated family. However, whilst more equal it is less stable. This is because individuals are free to leave if their needs are not met – again, producing greater family diversity. In today’s uncertain society, people turn to the family in the hope of finding security, however BECK argues that family relationships are themselves now subject to greater risk and uncertainty than ever before. For this reason BECK describes the family as a ‘zombie category’: it appears to be alive, but in reality is dead. People want it to be the haven of security in an unsecure world, but today’s family cannot provide this because of its instability

Answer 74

- even with greater choice and individualism, there is great uncertainty in family relationships as individuals have the choice to leave and there isn't exactly 'stability' in families and might not be practical for most people as some people may not want this variety of choice or like tradition - Thesis assumes that most people have this choice to do what they want without barriers which is not exactly true for most people. Also, people who may stay in unhappy toxic relationships might not have choice or inclination to leave e.g Trauma, Abuse - economic reasons, people may have the money to follow their own decisions/life route - Postmodernists/individualists may be based on the idea that we live in an inclusive utopia, where everyone can follow their own decisions / life route

Answer 75

Sociologists who take a personal life perspective, such as SMART (2007) and MAY (2013) agree that there is now greater family diversity, but they disagree with BECK and GIDDENS’ explanation of it, making many criticisms of the individualisation thesis: 1. They believe the thesis exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationships - traditional norms still prevail and impact on many people. 2. Secondly, they claim the thesis wrongly sees people as dis-embedded, ‘free-floating’, independent individuals. It ignores the fact that decisions and choices about personal relationships are made within a social context. 3. The thesis ignores the importance of structural factors such as social class inequalities and patriarchal gender norms in limiting and shaping relationship choices. MAY claims that their view is ‘an idealised version of a white middle-class man’ – they ignore the fact that not everyone has the same ability as this privileged group to exercise choice about relationships.

Answer 76

Connectedness Thesis: Reflecting these criticisms, sociologists from the personal life perspective propose an alternative to the individualisation thesis. SMART calls this the ‘connectedness thesis’. Rather than seeing us as dis-embedded individuals with limitless choice about personal relationships, she argues that we are fundamentally social beings whose choices are always made ‘within a web of connectedness’. According to the thesis, we live within networks of existing relationships and interwoven personal histories and these strongly influence our range of options and choices in relationships. As SMART states, ‘where lives have become interwoven and embedded, it becomes impossible for relationships to simply end because it is no longer a ‘pure relationship’. For example, parents who separate remain linked by their children, often against their wishes. Unlike BECK and GIDDENS who claimed that there has been a disappearance or weakening of the structures of class, gender and family, the connectedness thesis emphasises the role of the class and gender structures in which we are embedded – which limit our choices about the kinds of relationships, identities and families we can create for ourselves. For example: after a divorce, gender norms generally dictate that women should have custody of the children, which may limit their opportunity to form new relationships. By contrast, men are free to start new relationships and second families; they are generally better paid than women and this gives them greater freedom and choice in relationships. Furthermore, the relative powerlessness of women and children as compared to men means that they often lack freedom to choose and so for example, may remain trapped in abusive relationships. MAY argues that these structures are not disappearing, they are simply being re-shaped – therefore, women do not ‘have it all.’ Therefore, although there is a trend towards greater diversity and choice, the personal life perspective emphasises the continuing importance of structural factors such as patriarchy and class inequality in restricting people’s choices and shaping their lives

Answer 77

births - how many babies are born deaths - how many people die Immigration - how many people enter the country from elsewhere Emigration - how many people leave the country to live elsewhere

Answer 78

- births | - immigration

Answer 79

- deaths | - emigration

Answer 80

Sociologists use the concept of birth rate to measure births. The birth rate is defined as the number of live births per 1000 of the population per year. Despite a few fluctuations (baby booms), there had been a long-term decline in the birth rate from 1900 (28.7) until 2001. The birth rate has been increasing since this year and peaked in 2012 (12.8), the highest since 1971. By 2014 it had fallen to 12.2.

Answer 81

The factors determining the birth rate is: 1. The proportion of women who are of childbearing age (15-44) 2. How fertile they are – that is, how many children they have. The total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years. Despite this rising since 2001 to 1.94 in 2012 from an all-time low of 1.63, it is still far lower than its peak of 2.95 children in 1964 (the 1960s baby boom). In 2014 it was 1.83. These changes in fertility and birth rates reflect the fact that (a) more UK born women are remaining childless than in the past, (b) women are postponing having children – the average age for giving birth is now 30 and fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s are on the increase - nevertheless they have fewer fertile years remaining and so produce fewer children and (c) the proportion of women of childbearing age born outside of the UK.

Answer 82

Sociologists have identified a number of social, economic, cultural, legal, political and technological reasons for the long-term decline in the birth rate since 1900. - changes in the position of women - decline in the infant mortality rate - children have become an economic liability - child centeredness

Answer 83

CHANGES IN THE POSITION OF WOMEN: - women are putting education/careers first meaning they are settling down at a later age - it is much easier to manage a career with less children rather than seven children - changing social attitudes - women are no longer expected to have children - they are no longer stigmatised due to a changing society - individualism - having a child is a reflection of a choice - improvements in healthcare/technology advancement e.g. contraception - women are more in control of their family - the size, the structure, and the timing of it - Secularisation - changing role and expectation of women - if a women has an abortion - they are able to access a legal extermination without stigma

Answer 84

DECLINE IN THE INFANT MORTALITY RATE: - medical / technological advancement - improvements in healthcare + medicine - women today do not have to have as many children to ensure the survival a few in the Uk compared to the past - medical advancement = there are interventions during birth / they are monitored throughout their pregnancy e.g pre-natal care - women health - public health knowledge for pregnancy - infant mortality decreases as society is much more accommodating for pregnant women in society - better knowledge of infant health / childcare - immunisation/vaccine programs have cut the infant mortality rate

Answer 85

CHILDREN HAVE BECOME AN ECONOMIC LIABLITY - - Expensive - (children are no longer economic assets) - people use to have lots of children to bring an income for the household. Today people argue children are more of a liability for the costs of bringing up children - can be a huge financial drain on a household e.g university fees

Answer 86

CHILD CENTREDNESS: If you have less children - you can provide a more great childhood for their children - parents can lavish spoil them and spend their finance on them - we live in a child centred/orientated world - more focused on children's needs

Answer 87

As a result of the above factors, birth rates, fertility rates and family sizes have fallen over the last century. However there has been a slight increase in births since 2001. The main factor accounting for this is the increase in immigration. On average, mothers from outside of the UK have a higher fertility rate. Babies born to mothers from outside the UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011.

Answer 88

Family - smaller families have become more of the norm and this reflects changes in gender roles. Smaller families have led to dual career couples becoming more of the norm (exception of migrant families) - easier to have a more demanding career than a family = due to neo-conventional couples which is a couple that both work Dependency ratio - (relationship between size of the working population (economically active) and the non-working population (economically in-active). The population of the UK most likely are the inactive population e.g elderly, children and unemployed The reduction in the number of children reduces the burden of dependency of the working population in the short term but in the longer term, there are fewer workers who are economically active - the workers of the future (there are less) - Public services and policies - fewer maternity units and schools will be required and a reduction in the birth rate will have an impact on the type of housing we require in the future (rethink the average family size) and schools could close

Answer 89

In the UK the overall number of deaths has remained fairly stable since 1900, at round about 600 000 per year. However, there have been some important fluctuations such as the two world wars and the flu epidemic of 1918, 2019 coronavirus pandemic. However, the death rate has fallen since 1900. The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year. In 1900 the death rate was 19 whereas by 2012 it had dramatically fallen to 8.9.

Answer 90

- Decline in deaths from infectious diseases - Medical improvements - Improved nutrition - Smoking and diet - public health measures and environmental improvements - other social changes

Answer 91

DECLINE IN THE DEATHS FROM INFECTIOUS DISEASES: - fall in death from diseases such as diphtheria (influenza), scarlet fever, small pox, measles and TB (tuberculosis). - the population has developed some natural resistance and some diseases have become virulent - from the 1950s, the emergence of diseases of affluence e.g. heart disease, cancer reflecting people's standard of living - smoking seen as a 'affluent' hobby but causes lung cancer

Answer 92

MEDICAL IMPROVEMENTS: - since the setting up of the NHS in 1948, the population have had free access to free healthcare - introduction of antibiotics, wide spread immunisation programs (vaccination), blood transfusion, advanced surgical innovations, improved medicines and higher standards of midwifery and maternity services etc have all contributed to a fall in the death rate

Answer 93

IMPROVED NUTRITITION: M'keown (1972) - argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to a half in reduction of death rates and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths in TB. Better nutrition increases resistance to infection and increases the survival chances of those who did become affected Criticism: critics argue that he doesn't explain what females who often receive a smaller share of the family food supply live longer than males / particularly in poorer families

Answer 94

SMOKING AND DIET: Sociologist Harper (2013) claims that the greater fall in death rates in recent decades has not come from medical improvements but simply in a reduction in the number of people smoking - In the 21st century, obesity has replaced smoking as a the new lifestyle epidemic/deaths from obesity have been kept low as a result of medication and drug therapy as we are moving towards an 'almost American culture'

Answer 95

PUBLIC HEALTH MEASURES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENTS: - In the 20th century, more laws have been introduced leading to a range of improvements in public health and the equality of the environment - not allowed to smoke in buildings/public places (banned) - increasing the age of when you can smoke / how smoking is advertised and sold - must have health warnings - promotion of health and fitness in schools - improvement in sewage disposal - purer drinking water - clear air acts - reduced air pollution - paris agreement / cop 26 climate change

Answer 96

OTHER SOCIAL CHANGES: - the decline of dangerous manual occupations e.g mining - smaller families reduce the rate of transmission of infection - not everybody but more people are more health conscious in relation to both physical and mental health - society is much more aware in risk - change in leisure - increasingly physical activities become more of leisure activity rather than an activity e.g. cycling - society has become more activity orientated

Answer 97

Life expectancy: As death rates have fallen, so life expectancy has increased. For example: Males born in England in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50 and females until 57, whereas males born in England in 2013 can expect to live for 90.7 years and females for 94 years. In 2012 average life expectancy has increased to 78.8 years for males and 82.8 years for females. To put the improvement of life expectancy into perspective, a newborn baby today has a better chance of reaching its 65th birthday than a baby born in 1900 had of reaching its 1st birthday! If the trend to greater longevity (long lifespan) continues, HARPER (2012) predicts that we will soon achieve ‘radical longevity’, with many more centenarians (people aged over 100). Currently there are approximately 10,000 in the UK; by 2100 these are projected to be one million.

Answer 98

- women generally live longer than men (although the gap has narrowed) - those living in the north and in Scotland, have a lower life expectancy compared to the south - those working in a managerial and professional of occupations are 3 times more likely to live past the age of 65 than those working in a unskilled, working class job - walker (2011) states those living in the poorest sections of England die on average seven years earlier than those living in the richest

Answer 99

The average age of the UK population is rising. In 1911 it was 25, in 2013 it was 40.3 and by 2037 it is projected to reach 42.8. There are fewer younger and more elderly people in the population. In 2011 there were 9.2 million people over the age of 65 (compared to 3.5 million children under 5) making up 16.4% of the total population of England and Wales - that is 1 in 6 of the population is 65+. The number of people aged 65+ equalled the number of U15s for the first time ever in 2014. On current projections by 2041 there will be as many 78 year olds as 5 year olds.

Answer 100

The ageing population is a result of the following 3 factors: Increasing life expectancy: people are living longer into old age Declining infant mortality: nowadays very few infants die early in life Declining fertility: fewer young people are born in comparison to the number of older people in the population.

Answer 101

- public services - one-person pensioner households - the dependency ratio - policy implications - ageism

Answer 102

PUBLIC SERVICES: - older people consume a larger proportion of services such as health and social care - In addition, to increase expenditure on health care an ageing population may also impact on housing, transport and other services which can cost more

Answer 103

ONE-PERSON PENSIONER HOUSEHOLDS: - number of pensioners living alone has increased and one person pensioner households now account for 1 in 8 households (most of these households are females) - among the over, 75+ there are twice as many women than men ('feminisation of later life')

Answer 104

DEPENDENCY RATIO: - As part of the economically dependent group, the retired have to be provided for through taxation to fund pensions and healthcare / as the number of retired people increases which increases the dependency ratio and the burden on the working population - In 2015, there were 3.2 people of working age for every 1 pensioner and this ratio is expected to fall to 2.8 by 2033 - impact of the ageing population. Reflecting this, the retirement age has increased and is likely to do so again - From 2026, both men and women will have to wait until they are 67 to access their state pension

Answer 105

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: - tax might have to increase to support an ageing population - plan for more changes in houses, shelter accommodations and nursing homes - transport implications - funding leisure for the elderly - less specialists with the medical profession on children (paediatrics) need more specialists for elderly care - more research on dementia - expansion in areas such as that

Answer 106

AGEISM: - This can be seen in employment and unequal treatment in healthcare - older people may want to still work - The discourse (way we think and speak) about old age and ageing constructs it as a problem - more negative - many sociologists argue that ageism is the result of structured dependency. This is where the 'elderly' are excluded from paid work and forcing them into a state of economic dependency - Philipson (1982) - The old of no use to capitalism as they are no longer productive and the state are therefore unwilling to support them adequately

Answer 107

PILCHER (1995) argues that inequalities such as class and gender remain important. Many of these are related to the individual’s previous occupational position. For example: The middle class have better occupational pensions and greater savings from higher salaries. Poorer old people have a shorter life expectancy and suffer more infirmity (making it difficult to maintain a youthful self-identity). Furthermore, women’s lower earnings and career breaks as carers mean lower pensions. Postmodernists are criticised for understating the importance of such inequalities. These are related to the wider structure of society and they play a major part in shaping the experience of old age, often restricting the freedom of the elderly to choose an identity through their consumption. Older people also face discrimination that limits their choices: Age Concern (2004) found more people reported age discrimination than any other form.

Answer 108

POST-MODRNIST ON AGEISM/ AGEING POPULATION - PMs argue that the fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down which gives individuals greater choice - we can all now define ourselves and construct out identities by what they do and consume - This also applies to the old and elderly - To PMs age is a social construct as older people use goods and services to create new identities e.g. facial and hair products, anti-ageing cosmetic surgery. PM focused on the fluid nation of society and individualism

Answer 109

Migration: refers to the movement of people from place to place. It can be internal, within a society or international

Answer 110

Immigration: movement into a society Emigration: movement out of a society Net migration: is the difference between the numbers immigrating and emigrating and is expressed as a net increase or decrease due to migration

Answer 111

Immigration: The growth in the UK population throughout the (20th was the result of a natural increase, rather than migration patterns. Until the 1980s the numbers immigrating were lower than those emigrating. From 1900 to the Second World War the largest immigrant group to the UK were the Irish, mainly for economic reasons, followed by Eastern and Central European Jews, who were often refugees fleeing persecution and people of British descent from Canada and the US. Few immigrants were non-white. However, by the 1950s, black immigrants from the Caribbean began to settle in the UK, followed by South Asian immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladeshi and Sri Lanka and by East African Asians from Kenya and Uganda during the 1960s and 1970s.

Answer 112

As a consequence, the UK has become a much more ethnically diverse society, by 2011 minority ethnic groups accounted for 12.1% of the total population (and this has contributed greatly to the diversity of family patterns found in contemporary Britain). However, throughout this period even though more people left the UK than entered, and white immigrants made up the majority of settlers, a series of immigration and nationality acts from 1962 to 1990 placed severe restrictions on non-white immigration. By the 1980s, non-whites accounted for little more than a quarter of all immigrants, with white people from the European Union being the main source of immigration

Answer 113

Emigration: From as early as the mid (16th until the 1980s, the UK has almost always been a net exporter of people: more people emigrate than have come to settle. Since 1900, the great majority of emigrants have gone to the US and the old Commonwealth countries (Canada, Australia and New Zealand) and South Africa. The main reasons have been economic, both in terms of ‘push’ factors such as economic recession and unemployment at home and ‘pull’ factors such as high wages or better opportunities abroad. Earlier in the century, there were often labour shortages in these countries. These economic reasons contrast with other groups who have been driven to migration by religious, political or racial persecution.

Answer 114

IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON UK POPULATION STRUCTURE: Recent years have seen an increase in both immigration and emigration. These trends affect the size and distribution of the UK population, its age structure and the dependency ratio. - population size - age structure - the dependency ratio - distribution of the population

Answer 115

(a) Population size: In 2012 there was a net migration of 176,000 people into the UK (497,000 immigrating and 321, 000 emigrating). In 2004 the figure was 223,000 - this was the highest net inflow of people since 1991. The key reason for this increase was the expansion of the European Union in 2004 to including ten new member states, mostly in Eastern Europe, giving their citizens the right to live and work in the UK.

Answer 116

(b) Age structure: Both immigrants and emigrants are generally young and slightly more likely to be male than female. Immigrants are generally younger, for example, in 2011 the average age of UK passport holders was 41, whereas that of non-UK passport holders living in Britain was 31. Being younger, immigrants are more fertile and thus produce more babies. However, a significant number of emigrants are older, with 40% moving to EU countries such as Spain to retire.

Answer 117

(c) The dependency ratio: The effect of migration on the dependency ratio is complex. On one hand migrants are mainly of working age and this reduces dependency, however immigrant women tend to have higher fertility rates and in the short term this contributes to a higher dependency, but in the long term produces more workers, helping to reduce the ratio once again. The longer a group is settled in the country, the closer their fertility rate comes to the national average, reducing their overall impact on the dependency ration.

Answer 118

(d) Distribution of the population: As a result of internal migration during the industrial revolution of the (19th there was a population shift from the largely agricultural South to the industrial North for jobs in mining, shipbuilding, steel, iron, textiles etc. In 1851 Britain was the first country to see more than half of its population living in towns and cities. However, during the (20th as these industries declined and gave way to newer ones (cars, chemicals, electrical engineering etc.) developing in the South and Midlands there began a population shift in the opposite direction in search of job opportunities. More recently, London and the South East have exerted an important pull because of the growth in the finance and service industries located there. A corresponding trend has been suburbanization with the growth of large residential areas surrounding the major cities and more recently still, there has been a reversal of the outflow of population from inner city areas.

Answer 119

- immigrants are more fertile - so produce more babies and add to the population growth, size, family size and structures - can effect the dependency ratio because of high fertility rates but produce more workers - more migration contributes to the diversity of families / households e.g interracial couples + different family structures / culture - high fertility rate can contribute to the national average - dispersed extended family without a country / across borders - who may live in their home country - ethnic families - may lead to the increase in nuclear families - increase in family size

Answer 120

Globalisation is the idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries. It is the result of many combined processes, including the growth of communication systems and global media, the creation of global markets, the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the expansion of the European Union. One major social change resulting from globalization is international migration.

Answer 121

- acceleration - differentiation - feminisation of migration

Answer 122

1. Acceleration: There has been a speeding up of the rate of migration. For example, according to the United Nations (2013), between 2000-2013 international migration increased by 33% to reach 232 million or 3.2% of the world’s population. In the same year, 862,000 people either entered or left the UK.

Answer 123

2. Differentiation: Globalisation is increasing the diversity of types of migrant - there are many types of migrant including permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses and forced migrants such as refugees and asylum seekers (some may have legal entitlement while others enter without permission). Before the 1990s, immigration to the UK came from a fairly narrow range of former British colonies, most had the right to settle and formed stable, geographically concentrated and homogeneous ethnic communities.

Answer 124

ADVANTAGE - there is a sense of belonging and understanding between these communities / people and increase in tolerance DISADVANTAGE - some ethnic groups may be divided by culture or region which can cause disagreement or perhaps conflict e.g some asian communities are separated by nationality - segregation and isolation can lead to ignorance

Answer 125

However, since the 1990s globalization has led to what VERTOVEC (2007) calls ‘super-diversity’. Migrants now come from a much wider range of countries and a given ethnic group may increasingly be divided by culture or religion and be widely dispersed throughout the UK.

Answer 126

There are also class differences among migrants. COHEN (2006) distinguishes three types of migrant: (a) Citizens: with full citizenship rights (e.g. voting rights and access to benefits). Since the 1970s, the UK has made it harder for immigrants to acquire these rights. (b) Denizens: are privileged foreign nationals welcomed by the state, e.g. billionaire oligarchs or highly paid employees of multinational companies. (c) Helots: (literally slaves) are the most exploited group. States and employers regard them as ‘disposable units of labour power’, a reserve army of labour. They are found in unskilled, poorly paid work and include illegally trafficked workers and those legally tied to particular employers, such as domestic servants.

Answer 127

The feminisation of migration: In the past most migrants were men. However, today almost half of all global migrants are female. This has been called the globalization of the gender division of labour, where female migrants find that they are fitted into patriarchal stereotypes about women’s roles as carers or providers of sexual services. EHRENREICH and HOCHSCHILD (2003) observed that care work, domestic work and sex work in western countries like the UK and the US is increasingly performed by women from poor countries. This is a result of several trends including the expansion of service occupations in western countries which has led to an increasing demand for female labour; western women being less willing or able to perform domestic labour; an unwillingness among western men to perform domestic labour and the failure of the state to provide adequate childcare. The resulting gap has been partly filled by women from poor countries. For example, SHUTES (2011) reports that 40% of adult care nurses in the UK are migrants – most of these are female. There is also a global transfer of women’s emotional labour where migrant nannies provide care and affection for their employers’ children at the expense of their own children left behind in their home country. Migrant women also enter western countries as ‘mail order’ brides. This often reflects gendered and racialized stereotypes, for example of oriental women as subservient. Women migrants also enter the UK as illegally trafficked sex workers, often kept in conditions amounting to slavery.

Answer 128

- providers of sexual services stereotype - that sex work in western countries e.g US have (women from poorer countries ) performing this type of work. - domestic female labour stereotype - women from poorer countries are more likely to domestic work due to increasing demand for female labour but also the fact western women/men less willing to do domestic labour - this results in this gap being filled by women in poorer countries

Answer 129

MIGRANT IDENTITIES: For migrants and their descendants, their country of origin may provide an additional or alternative source of identity. Reflecting this, migrants may develop hybrid identities: EADE (1994) found that second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchical identities: they saw themselves as Muslim first, then Bengali, then British.

Answer 130

- transnational identities - the politicisation of migration -

Answer 131

. Transnational identities: According to ERIKSEN (2007), globalisation has created more diverse migration patterns, with back-and-forth movements of people through networks rather than permanent settlement in another country. As a result, migrants are less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one culture or country. Instead, they may develop transnational ‘neither/nor’ identities and loyalties. Modern technology also makes it possible to sustain global ties without having to travel. The globalised economy means that migrants may have more links to other migrants around the world than to either their country of origin or of settlement. Migrants in a globalized world are thus less likely to desire assimilation into the host culture.

Answer 132

. The politicisation of migration: With increased global flows of migrants, migration has become an important political issue. States now have policies that seek to control immigration, absorb migrants into society and deal with increased ethnic and cultural diversity. More recently, immigration policies have also become linked to national security and anti-terrorism policies: (a) Assimilationism: was the first state policy approach to immigration. It was aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture to make them ‘like us’. However, assimilation policies face the problem that transnational migrants with hybrid identities may not be willing to abandon their culture or to see themselves as belonging to just one nation-state. (b) Multiculturalism: accepts that migrants may wish to retain a separate cultural identity. However, in practice, this acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural diversity. For example, ERIKSON distinguishes between shallow diversity: such as regarding chicken tikka masala as Britain’s national dish, is acceptable to the state and deep diversity: such as arranged marriages or the veiling of women, is not acceptable to the state. From the 1960s there was a move towards multiculturalism but since the ‘9/11’ Islamist terrorist attack in 2001, many politicians have swung back towards demanding that migrants assimilate culturally. For example, in France, veiling of the face in public was made illegal in 2010

Answer 133

a) Assimilationism: was the first state policy approach to immigration. It was aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture to make them ‘like us’. However, assimilation policies face the problem that transnational migrants with hybrid identities may not be willing to abandon their culture or to see themselves as belonging to just one nation-state.

Answer 134

b) Multiculturalism: accepts that migrants may wish to retain a separate cultural identity. However, in practice, this acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural diversity. For example, ERIKSON distinguishes between shallow diversity: such as regarding chicken tikka masala as Britain’s national dish, is acceptable to the state and deep diversity: such as arranged marriages or the veiling of women, is not acceptable to the state. From the 1960s there was a move towards multiculturalism but since the ‘9/11’ Islamist terrorist attack in 2001, many politicians have swung back towards demanding that migrants assimilate culturally. For example, in France, veiling of the face in public was made illegal in 2010.

Answer 135

However, CASTELLS (200) argues that assimilationist policies are counter-productive because they mark out minority groups as culturally backward or ‘Other’. This can lead to minorities responding by emphasising their difference, as in the case of Islamic fundamentalism. This increases the hosts’ suspicion of them as an ‘enemy within’ and may promote anti-terrorism policies that target them. This breeds further marginalisation, defeating the goal of assimilation. Assimilation policies may also encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment, resulting in racist scapegoating. According to CASTLES and KOSACK (1973), this benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided working class and preventing united action in defense of their interests.

Answer 136

- individuals will not want to drop their identity or abandon their culture - does not embrace the wide variety culture, identity a person can have - make migrants conform which is very xenophobic / racist as the assumption that migrants will assimilate of the culture of the host country rather than embrace the culture they are from

Answer 137

diverse migration patterns with back and forth movements of people through networks rather than permanent settlement in another country leads to more transnational identities modern technology allows people to sustain global ties - more transnational / hybrid identities - free movement is easier to accommodate to greater movement as world is more connected through globalisation

Answer 138

- more mixed / interracial families - leading to more people having transnational / hybrid identities and more diversity in the contemporary Britain - multiculturalism - more bigger extended families - maintaining cultural ideas . traditions

Answer 139

Effect: One effect of the declining death rate on the family is that it has increased the number of three or more generational extended families. Analysis of Effect: According to Item A, one of the key reasons for the decline has been better health care. For example, access to a free NHS, advanced medical knowledge, antibiotics etc. have improved the life expectancy of individuals in UK society. As a result, it is more likely today that different generations coexist side by side. Therefore, there is scope for more extended families existing today. This means that the decline in the death rate has impacted on the possible structure of families (more vertical extensions) and the size of families; they have increased in size. Evaluation: However, fewer people live in classic extended families today, so despite different generations coexisting – households are less likely to increase in size as most extended families today are modified versions. Effect: Another effect of the declining death rate on the family is an increase in single/lone person households. Analysis of Effect: As stated in Item A, the death rate has declined as a result of improved sanitation and safer working environments. A number of laws have been passed to ensure that the environment we live and work in has improved and this has contributed to the decline in the death rate. As a consequence of death rates decreasing, average life expectancy has increased. In 2012 the average life expectancy increased to 78.8 years for males and 82.8 years for females. Because women live on average for longer than men, this leads to an increase in the number of widows living alone in single person pensioner households. This means that average family/household size has reduced and will continue to get smaller as the ageing population rises. Evaluation: However, while women do live longer than men, the gender gap has narrowed. This may mean that in the future the period that someone lives alone in a single person household will be reduced. Effect: Another effect of the declining death rate on the family is that because of an ageing population, grandparents may have a more active role in childcare. Analysis of Effect: This reflects Item A, which states that this trend can have consequences on the roles and relationships that exist within the family too. Because of the changing role of women, both parents are more likely to work today. This has implications for the changing role of grandparents. They may be relied on heavily to engage in full-time childcare in the pre-school years for their grandchildren and then when they start school they may be involved in the school run. This changes roles and relationships as grandparents have a bigger role and input in their grandchildren’s lives and grandchildren may have a much closer relationship to their grandparents. Evaluation: However, this does not apply to all families as many parents may not rely on the older generation for childcare or may be unable to do so if they do not live in close proximity to each other.

Answer 140

The ‘founding father’ of functionalism was the French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1893). The theory rests on the idea that society is based on social order and stability. Durkheim’s goal was to explain how this social order was created and maintained

Answer 141

Durkheim and another functionalist, Parsons used an organic analogy to explain social order by making a comparison between society and the human body. Just as the human body is composed of different organs which each have a separate function to perform to enable us to operate healthy, the same applies to society.

Answer 142

Society is composed of different parts and each performs functions to enable society to achieve social order and stability Functionalist theory explains how each part of society contributes to solidarity, value consensus and equilibrium. According to Durkheim if these conditions are in place social order is possible.

Answer 143

Social solidarity: social unity/ community/ togetherness/ unified/sense of belonging/cohesion/integration

Answer 144

Value Consensus: shared agreement/norms/beliefs/similar stance/mutual/plural

Answer 145

Equilibrium: balance / evenness/ stability / equality

Answer 146

Functionalism emphasizes integration and harmony between the different parts of society. The focus of functionalist analysis is always placed on examining how the different parts of society (units, structures, institutions, systems) work together to maintain society and how each part contributes to the general functioning of society. The same holds true in relation to their study of the family. Functionalists are interested in 1. The contribution that the family makes to satisfy the functional prerequisites which enable society to survive and 2. How the family fits with other social institutions so that society functions efficiently and harmoniously.

Answer 147

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY? Reflecting DURKHEIM’s views, MURDOCK (1949) argues that the family performs 5 essential functions to meet the needs of society and its members: 1. SEXUAL: Stable satisfaction of the sex drive with the same partner, preventing the social disruption caused by a sexual ‘free-for-all’ 2. REPRODUCTION: Reproduction of the next generation, without which society could not continue 3. SOCIALIZATION: Socialization of the young into society’s shared norms and values 4. ECONOMIC: Meeting its members’ economic needs, such as food, clothing and shelter 5. EMOTIONAL Murdock accepts that other institutions could perform these functions, however he argues that the sheer practicality of the nuclear family as a way of meeting these 5 functional prerequisites explains why it is universal.

Answer 148

However, critics claim (a) other non-nuclear family structures are just as capable of fulfilling these functions and (b) question his ‘rose-tinted’ consensus assumption that all nuclear families carry out these functions. (a) reconstituted families, same-sex families, SPFS etc can also provide all the functions (b) not all nuclear families meet all these functions as there is false assumption that all nuclear families meet the functions. Murdock ignores the existence of empty shell marriages and has the utopian idea of marriage as not all couples are sexually together - some couples may choose to not have children - economically - not all nuclear families can provide for all their members and may rely on government benefits - may not cater towards emotional needs - Murdock ignores the 'dark side' or 'dysfunctional' aspect / nature of families e.g children may be brought up in a toxic environment

Answer 149

DURKHEIM (1893) argues that all parts of society are functionally interconnected. He argues that families are linked to other parts of the social system: - social class, law, occupation, culture, politics, education, religion - may influence their family members in view or teach them / brought up in a religion etc. social class can link to occupation or education - religion provides a moral guidance - families ensure and fulfil the obligation of education - gain culture from your family

Answer 150

PARSONS: ‘FUNCTIONAL FIT’ THEORY (1955) According to PARSONS the particular structure and functions of a given type of family will ‘fit’ the needs of society in which it is found. Reflecting this he argues that when a society changes from a traditional pre-industrial to a modern industrial one the family changes on two levels: (a) Its structure changes from being extended to nuclear (b) It loses many of its functions

Answer 151

(a) STRUCTURAL CHANGES: In Parsons’ view, when Britain began to industrialise, from the late C18th onwards, the extended family began to give way to the nuclear. This was because the emerging industrial society had different needs from pre-industrial society and the family adapted to meet these needs. He saw industrial society as having two essential needs: 1. A geographically mobile workforce: Parsons argues that it is easier for the compact two-generational nuclear family to be mobile and move around the country for work than it would be for a large three generational extended family. 2. A socially mobile workforce: Tensions and conflicts would emerge if a socially mobile younger generation, achieving higher status than their parents still lived at home.

Answer 152

(b) FUNCTIONAL CHANGES: PARSONS argues that the evolution of society involves a process of specialisation and structural differentiation. This means that as society develops and becomes increasingly complex, institutions specialize in fewer functions. In relation to the family, this process involves the transfer of many traditional family functions to other institutions that have emerged. This means that the family has been stripped of some of its more general non-essential functions, but for PARSONS this is a good and positive development as it means it has become a more specialised agency. He focuses his analysis on the modern American family. He argues that it retains two ‘basic and irreducible functions’ which he claims are common to families in all societies: 1. The primary socialisation of children: He argues that families are ‘factories’ which produce human personalities. He claims that children’s personalities are structured through the internalisation of their society’s culture. Children absorb the norms and values of society to the point where they become part of him/her – they are moulded in terms of the central value system of society. 2. Stabilsation of adult personalities: Once the personality is established it must be kept stable. Adults need emotional security and this is seen as being best achieved through the marital relationship and parenting roles: (a) marital relationships - male performs an instrumental role a provider for his family as a partner e.g breadwinner or main earner role. - female performs an expressive role - affectionate, caring - to look after their families needs - nurturing like These roles are defined by gender specific roles - individuals have awareness of their roles - it is reinforcing + complimentary creates an equilibrium - no conflict (b) parenting role provides an opportunity for adults to indulge in childlike activities with their children which provides an emotional release from adult responsibilities For PARSONS, (like other functionalists) the nuclear family is the ideal institution to perform these essential functions in modern industrial society.

Answer 153

Murdock argues that the family performs 5 essential functions these are: - Sexual - Reproduction - Socialisation - economic - emotional

Answer 154

Sexual function - stable satisfaction of the sex drive with the same partner, preventing the social disruption caused by a sexual 'free for all' - normalises monogamy - regulated sexual activity allowing society to maintain order

Answer 155

Reproduction - The family reproduces the next generation, without that society would simply not exist or continue. The family ensures society continues

Answer 156

Socialisation - socialisation of the young into society's shared norms and values e.g. primary socialisation. The family ensures children learn the rules and culture of society.

Answer 157

Economic- Meeting its members' economic needs, such as food, clothing and shelter

Answer 158

Emotional - ensures the family is cared and looked after. Provides love and warmth for all the members

Answer 159

Murdock accepts that other institutions can perform these functions, however he argues that the sheer practicality of the nuclear family as a way of meeting these 4 functional prerequisites explains why it is universal

Answer 160

Critics would argue that other non-nuclear family structures are just as a capable of fulfilling these functions e.g reconstituted families, single parent families, same-sex etc. They would also question Murdock's rose tinted consensus assumption that all nuclear families carry out these functions, as not all nuclear families provide these functions e.g relying on government benefits or may not cater towards emotional needs. They may also argue that Murdock ignores the 'dark side' or 'dysfunctional' aspect / nature of families e.g children may be brought up in a toxic environment

Answer 161

Durkheim argues that all parts of society are functionally interconnected. He argues that families are linked to other parts of the social system. An example would be religion provides a moral guidance for individuals or the fact your culture is gained and learnt from your family members

Answer 162

1 - a geographically mobile workforce: Parsons argues that it is easier for the compact two-generational nuclear family to be mobile and move around the country for work than it would be for a large three generational extended family. 2 - a socially mobile workforce: Tensions and conflicts would emerge if a socially mobile younger generation, achieving higher status than their parents still lived together at home

Answer 163

The primary socialisation of children and stabilisation of adult personalities

Answer 164

Parson argues that families are 'factories' which produce human personalities. He claims that through primary socialisation, children's personalities are structured through the internalisation of their society's culture. Children absorb the norms and values of society to the point where they become part of him/her - they are moulded in terms of the central value system of society

Answer 165

Parson argues that once the personality is established it must be kept stable. Adults need emotional security and this is seen as being best achieved through marital relationships and parenting roles.

Answer 166

Through marital relationships, the male performs an instrumental role by being the provider for his family and as a partner. The female performs an expressive role by being affectionate and having a nurturing role. As well as this, they will look after the families needs by being the caregiver. These roles are defined by gender specific roles - individuals have awareness of their roles which reinforces the roles and makes it complimentary and thus creates an equilibrium where this is no conflict as there is a division of responsibility

Answer 167

Parenting roles can provide an opportunity for adults to indulge in child-like activities with their children which provides an emotional release from adult responsibilities - cathartic release

Answer 168

- other-non nuclear family structures are just as capable of fulfilling the essential functions Murdock believes meets the needs of society and its members - Marxists and feminists question and reject Murdock's 'rose-tinted' consensus assumption that all nuclear families carry out these functions and meet the needs of both wider society and all the different members of the family. - assumes only heterosexual relationships and does not consider same-sex or diverse family types - disregards women's mental stability and women's choice in these gender specific roles - outdated, patriarchal and sexist assumptions - ignores the existence of neo-conventional families - parenting roles can be stressful and create more worry and anxiety e.g financial worries - ignores the realities of parenting - Some may be critical of the roles and functions the family performs as they are fixed gender roles - may view roles as patronizing and patriarchal as pressure are placed on males to be the breadwinner and underestimates the changing role and financial independency of women today. - Approach seems to only benefit men, as women are expected to not only be the caregiver but homemaker - disregards the wishes of women

Answer 169

- children being socialised and normalised into accepting hierarchy e.g family structures - (parent / child, older sibling / younger sibling) and being well practised in subordination and becoming subservient - reflecting why workers continue the system of capitalism as it is embedded in their minds and lives - families acting as a unit of consumption for capitalism - families influencing their children by influencing the idea they should not be aspirational and do the same work as their parents - highlight how through the way families operate they contribute to capitalism and are taught to conform and obey as a preparation for capitalist society

Answer 170

- Marxists tend to assume that the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society. This ignores the wide variety of family structures found in society today. - Feminists argue that the marxist emphasis on class and capitalism underestimates the importance of gender inequalities within the family. In the feminist view, these are more fundamental than class inequalities and the family primarily serves the interests of men not capitalism. - Functionalists, argue that marxists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members

Answer 171

- other feminists criticise liberal feminists for failing to challenge the underlying causes of women's oppression - for being too optimistic as they believe that changes in the law or people's attitudes will be enough to bring gender equality

Answer 172

- sees capitalism as the only source of oppression for women - families are more diverse, so the nuclear family is less common so the theory is less applicable - ignores women have made progress, in family life - no longer defined by social expectations, changing role of women - old arguments - family structures mentioned are not reflective of UK contemporary society together.

Answer 173

- do not account for males who are not violent or not all women are abused - there could also be male victims of abuse - separatism would be hard to implement because of heterosexual attraction - fails to recognise that women's position has improved as women can now divorce, have better job opportunities, control over their fertility and have the ability to choose to marry and cohabit etc

Answer 174

- different feminism has been criticised for neglecting the fact that all women share many of the same experiences. For example, they all face a risk of domestic violence and sexual assault, low pay and so on

Answer 175

- They suggest full gender equality would be achieved in the labour market, if women are freed from their domestic responsibilities - change of fundamental structure of the family - They would suggest cheap / government subsided childcare so women have a choice to work

Answer 176

- some people in society are in denial believing that domestic violence occurs rarely or believe it only occurs to certain groups of society - highlights the division of public and private understanding of the issue - Male dominance in institutions such as the police and courts explain the reluctance to deal effectively with cases of domestic violence or their reasons of non-intervention - The idea that families are safe, so the problem of domestic violence is defied

Answer 177

- criticised for taking too of a broad view as by taking a wide range different kinds of personal relationships we ignore what is special about relationships that are based on blood or marriage

Answer 178

It socialises children into the idea that hierarchy and inequality are inevitable and offers an illusory ‘haven’ from the harsh and exploitative world of capitalism outside.

Answer 179

- It tends to assume the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society and ignores the wide variety of other family structures found in society today. - It underestimates the importance of gender inequalities within the family. - It ignores the benefits that the family provides for its members.

Answer 180

Functionalists take a consensus view of the family. They see it as a universal institution that performs essential functions for society as a whole and for all its members. Parsons sees a functional fit between the nuclear family and modern's society need for a mobile labour force Marxists see the family as serving the economic and ideological needs of capitalism, such as the transmission of private property from one generation of capitalists to the next Feminists see the family perpetuating patriarchy. Liberal, radical and Marxist feminists differ over the cause of women's subordination and the solution to it. Functionalist, marxist and feminist theories have all been criticised for neglecting family diversity and individuals capacity to choose their family arrangements The personal life perspective argues that we must focus on the meanings people give to relationships and on how they define what counts as family

Answer 181

Karl Marx (1818-83) is considered to be one of the world's greatest intellectuals; he was a brilliant and influential sociologist, philosopher, economist, historian and political scientist. His work represents a critique of industrial capitalism. Before, the industrial revolution, inequalities existed within society, however the process of industrialisation led to the development of a capitalist society where inequalities become far more pronounced and extreme

Answer 182

Capitalism is a society which is based on individual and private ownership of wealth. It is an economic system where trade and industry are privately owned rather than owned by the state and the accumulation of wealth is encouraged. Within a capitalist society it is inevitable that there will be huge inequalities in income and wealth - the rich get richer while the poor get poorer

Answer 183

Marx observed that capitalism led to the emergence of an extreme two class system: A class of owners A class of non-owners

Answer 184

A CLASS OF OWNERS: ``` The capitalists - They own industry, they are wealthy and powerful and therefore the dominant class as because of their dominance, they are the ruling class otherwise known as 'bourgeoisie' or elite and they are the small minority of the population ```

Answer 185

A CLASS OF NON-OWNERS: ``` The masses - They are a class of workers and they own their labour and skill. They lack wealth and power and are the subordinate class e.g. inferior. They are the subject class as they are subject to the ruling class. The proletariat or the masses are the majority of the population. ```

Answer 186

The emergence of the class system shows how capitalism can be extremely hierarchical and in-egalitarian society based on a class of owners and non-owners. However, while their class circumstances are radically different - they are both dependent on each other.

Answer 187

Marx argued that although the proletariat suffer great inequalities they endure them as they suffer from false-class consciousness. False class consciousness is where the true nature of their exploitative situation is distorted - they are deluded and blinded to he real nature of their problems ('the wool has been pulled over their eyes') - no awareness of their true reality This is the result of ruling class ideology (where RC ideas become dominate and influence how people see things)

Answer 188

However, Marx predicted that over time the proletariat would gain full class consciousness and they would unite and engage in proletarian revolution - e.g. media and religion This would lead to the downfall of capitalism and the creation of Marx's utopian society - communism

Answer 189

Marxists critique the family because they believe that the way the family functions, serves to preserve and perpetuate the fundamentally unsatisfying and un-liberating patterns of capitalism. They claim it forestalls the emergence of a more enriching society because it operates in such a way that it protects and props up capitalism. Marxists illuminate four process whereby families support and reflect capitalist relations.

Answer 190

- Families encourage and reproduce hierarchical in-egalitarian relationship - Families act as safety valve dampening down discontentment - Reproduction of labour power - Unit of consumption

Answer 191

Families encourage and reproduce hierarchical in-egalitarian relationships: (a) Children are socialised to accept patterns of authority, obedience and power. In this way, they become well practised in subordination and become subservient. (b) Children observe and accept hierarchy. The family is based on in-egalitarian relationships between adults and children and between males and females and sometimes between older and younger siblings. Therefore, Marxists argue the habit we have of deferring to authority and accepting the unequal relationships that exist in society as a whole, has its source within the family. As a consequence, the family functions to sustain in-egalitarian structures outside of the family. It acts as a barrier to the development of a strong, organised and collective opposition to the status quo and therefore operates in an ideological way to support capitalism

Answer 192

Families act as a safety valve dampening down discontentment: Zaretsky (1976) states that in capitalist societies work is alienating and exploitive and this leads to feelings of discontentment. As a result of this, the family becomes even more important and is placed on a pedestal. It is seen as the source of satisfaction, achievement and fulfilment that cannot be gained elsewhere. In this way, he argues that the family ideologically functions to cushion the effects of capitalism even though it cannot compensate for the real alienation caused by it. Zaretsky observes that the fundamental irony of this is that the less fulfilling work is, the more people cling on to the family as their only hope and source of being valued and satisfied. However, in doing so, they allow the structures of inequality which made them seek refuge in the first place continue. Therefore, the family, in dampening down discontentment, perpetuates the very system which produces it.

Answer 193

Reproduction of labour power: In providing a place where children can be borne and reared in relative safety, the family reproduces tomorrow’s labour force with the attitudes required. At the same time, by offering a centre for relaxation, refreshment, rest and recreation, it ensures that members of the labour force return to work each day fit and healthy so that they can be once more, productive.

Answer 194

Unit of consumption: Before the emergence of capitalism, the family was a unit of production, however with capitalism, the family has become the major unit of consumption. Advertisers urge families to ‘keep up with the Joneses’ by consuming all the latest products and creating false needs. The media target children, who use ‘pester power’ to persuade parents to spend more and children who lack the latest clothes or ‘must have’ gadgets are mocked and stigmatised by their peers. In this way, through its purchasing, the family keeps the capitalist economy ticking over

Answer 195

‘The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State’ was published not long after Marx’s death in 1883 by his lifelong friend and collaborator, Engels (1884). Engels presented what is regarded as the first Marxist account of the origins of the bourgeois nuclear family (breadwinner male wage slave, dependent wife and children). Taking an evolutionary approach, Engels linked economic changes to changes in the family and sexual relationships arguing that the monogamous nuclear family developed with the emergence of private property. According to Engels early human beings lived as hunter gathers based on cooperation. There was no concept of private property, everyone shared everything. Correspondingly there was no need to establish paternity of children and sexual relations were promiscuous and society was matriarchal.

Answer 196

The development of property ownership primarily through industrialization and the development of capitalism shifted the balance of power from women to men and led to the creation of a patriarchal system as men were now tied to the workforce. At this time women retreated to the home to look after children for longer periods of time. It is in this context that women became homemakers and carers rather than workers alongside men. In this sense capitalism led to the exploitation and oppression not just of men as wage slaves but also of women. Furthermore, at this time society became patrilineal. Property became the right of males and in order for them to pass it on they had to be certain of the legitimacy of their heirs. They therefore needed greater control over women so that they would be in no doubt about the paternity of their children.

Answer 197

Bourgeois refers to the elite, who are the dominant class who have power and wealth

Answer 198

Monogamous refers to one relationship between partners in one lifetime

Answer 199

Matriarchal refers to a society where women dominate and females hold the most power / influence

Answer 200

Patrilineal refers to property and wealth being only passed on to males from father to son

Answer 201

Engels links the nuclear family to being the cause of the emergence of private property as due to the economic changes from industrial and capitalism it forced family structures to develop into a patriarchal system where males dominated and wealth and property held more importance to people in a capitalistic society. This leads to monogamous relationships being important so males could be certain their son was legitimate and thus could inherit their wealth and private property

Answer 202

THE NEW RIGHT: Politically the New Right is a conservative approach and they have a preference for the traditional nuclear family believing this is the ideal family structure. They are also strong supporters of the institution of marriage and are critical of many contemporary trends which they believe have undermined these structures. Reflecting this they are critical of: - growth in single parent families - cohabitation - lone person households - same - sex families - divorce increasing the breakdown of the family - reconstituted families - changes in child bearing - people not having children Furthermore they are particularly critical of single parent families for 3 key reasons: - Expensive family unit as disproportionately dependent on benefits - Dysfunctional family unit as children lack male role model - Reflect a lack of moral responsibility e.g. children out of marriage or divorce

Answer 203

Postmodernists believe the old established traditions and certainties associated with modern societies have almost collapsed e.g., : traditional family, monogamy, employment for life, patterns and trends just from the family. - They value and celebrate diversity as it reflects individualism and people can choose their own relationship structures / family units - Do-it-yourself biography - individualisation thesis - Don't see the nuclear family as superior, they see all family structures reflect individuals needs - Risk society - negotiated society - progress but risks They believe that postmodern society is a bit like a ‘cultural supermarket’ and individuals have much greater freedom to choose and negotiate their own lifestyle. They have the ability to ‘pic and mix’ their own life and life-course reflecting their own individual needs and preferences. In relation to the family they celebrate this greater individualism and believe it is reflected in greater: family plurality and diversity. This can be seen in the following trends which they interpret in positive terms e.g trends linked to family like increase in remarriages

Answer 204

Feminists take a critical view of the family as they believe it oppresses women. However, feminism is a broad term encompassing different theories. Each offers different solutions to the problem of gender inequality.

Answer 205

- liberal feminism - marxist feminism - radical feminism - difference feminism

Answer 206

LIBERAL FEMINISM: Liberal feminist focus on campaigning against sex discrimination and for equal rights and opportunities for women and argue that men would also benefit from full gender equality. They argue that the two most effective ways to promote gender equality are (a) changing people’s attitudes and behaviours through socialisation and (b) passing legislation to outlaw discrimination e.g. Sex Discrimination Act (1975). Although they believe that full gender equality has yet to be achieved they do acknowledge that progress has been made. However, they have been criticised for being too optimistic and because (a) and (b) have not necessarily promoted gender equality as they envisage

Answer 207

MARXIST FEMINISM: Marxist feminists argue that the main cause of women’s oppression is capitalism. They believe it serves key functions for capitalism (a) Women reproduce the labour force through their unpaid domestic labour, by socialising the next generation of workers with the values required by capitalists and maintaining the current one. (b) Women act as a safety valve and absorb anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalism. Ansley (1972) argues that wives are ‘takers of shit’ who soak up the legitimate frustration and anger that their husbands feel because of the exploitation they suffer at work. This explains male domestic violence against women. Furthermore, Benston (1969) argues that the nuclear family acts as a valuable stabilising force within capitalist society because the male wage is a family wage and the husband cannot withdraw his labour. (c) Women are a ‘reserve army’ of cheap labour that can be exploited depending on the needs of the economy. According to Mitchell (1971) full gender equality in the labour market can only be achieved if women are freed from their domestic responsibilities. Marxist feminists see the oppression of women in the family as linked to the exploitation of the working class and argue that a socialist revolution would lead to the abolition of the family as we know it.

Answer 208

RADICAL FEMINISM: Radical feminists argue that patriarchy causes women’s oppression. They claim that the key division in society is between men and women arguing (a) men are the enemy and the source of women’s oppression and (b) the family and marriage are key patriarchal institutions in society. Men benefit from women’s unpaid domestic labour and sexual services and they dominate women through domestic violence or the threat of it. In discussing patriarchy, many radical feminists focus their analysis on domestic violence. Many including Dobash and Dobash (1970) see widespread domestic violence as an inevitable feature of patriarchal society, arguing that it serves to preserve the power that men have over women. They see it as an extension of male domination and control over women and offer a sociological rather than psychological explanation by linking patterns of domestic violence to dominant patriarchal social norms about gender and marriage that they believe contribute to this pattern of behaviour. They point out that contrary to popular belief the family is not always a secure, happy and functional unit. For many, particularly women and children, the family is the most violent group to which they are likely to belong. Pahl (1985) argues that the legitimisation of domestic violence by wider society is clear in the denial that its incidence is rare, that it is confined to certain groups etc. She claims that the dichotomy between the public and the private sphere is central to an understanding of domestic violence. This and the male domination of state institutions helps according to Dobash and Dobash to explain the reluctance of the police and courts to deal effectively with cases of domestic violence and their justifications of non-intervention. For radical feminists, the patriarchal system has to be overturned and the family which is at the root of their oppression, abolished. They encourage separatism, where women organise themselves and live independently of men; many support the creation of matrilocal households and some advocate political lesbianism to avoid sleeping with the ‘enemy’.

Answer 209

DIFFERENCE FEMINISM: The three feminist approaches outlined tend to assume that most women live in conventional nuclear families and that they share a similar experience of family life. Difference feminists believe it is wrong to generalise in this way arguing that middle class and working class, black and white, heterosexual and lesbian, old and young women etc. all have different experiences. Therefore, they claim that different theories are needed to account for these differences.

Answer 210

THE SOCIOLOGY OF PERSONAL LIFE: The sociology of personal life is a new perspective on families and is strongly influence by interactionist ideas. It emphasises that to understand families, we must start from the point of view of the individuals concerned and the meanings they give to their relationships which contrasts with other theories. - Functionalist, Marxism and feminism all take a 'top down', structural approach - deterministic POV - By contrast, the personal life perspective shares the 'bottom up' approach of interactionism. It emphasises the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships. As well as taking a 'bottom up' approach to relationships, the personal life perspective also takes a wider view of the relationships than just traditional 'family' relationship has for people, the personal life perspective draws our attention to a though they may not be conventionally defined as 'family'. These include all kinds of relationships that individuals see as significant and that give them a sense of identity, belonging or relatedness.

Answer 211

As well as taking a 'bottom up' approach to relationships, the personal life perspective also takes a wider view of the relationships than just traditional 'family' relationship has for people, the personal life perspective draws our attention to a though they may not be conventionally defined as 'family'. These include all kinds of relationships that individuals see as significant and that give them a sense of identity, belonging or relatedness such as: Relationships with friends: who may be 'like a sister or brother' to you Fictive Kin: close friends who are treated as relatives, for example your mum's best friend who you call 'auntie' Gay and lesbian 'chosen families': made up of a supportive network of close friends, ex-partners and others, who are not related by blood or marriage Relationship with dead relatives: who live on in people's memories and continue to shape their identities and affect their actions Relationships with pets: for example, TIPPER 2011 found in her study of children's views of family relationships, that children frequently saw their pets as 'part of the family' - can extend to adults too These and similar relationships raise questions about what counts as family from the point of view of individuals involved

Answer 212

NORDQVIST and SMART (2014) conducted research on donor-conceived children explore 'what counts as family when your child shares a genetic link with a 'relative stranger' but not with your partner?' They found that the issue of blood and genes raised a range of feelings. Some parents emphasised the importance of social relationships over genetic ones in forming family bonds. For example, Erin, the mother of an egg-donor conceived child, defined being a mum in terms of the time and effort she put into raising her daughter: 'that's what makes a mother and not the cell that starts it off'. Parents wondered whether possible 'donor siblings' and other 'donor extended family' counted as family for their child. Where couples knew their donor, they had to resolve other questions about who counted as family, e.g do the donor's parents count as grandparents etc.

Answer 213

The personal life perspective rejects the 'top down' view taken by other theories, nevertheless it does see intimate relationships as performing the important function of providing us with a sense of belonging and relatedness. However, unlike functionalism, the personal life perspective recognises the relatedness is not always positive - The idea that functionalists assume that the nuclear family is good and positive personal life perspective understand that their can be more than intimate relationships outside of blood The value of the personal life perspective as compared with 'top down', structural approaches is that provides an understanding of how people construct and define their relationships as 'family', rather than imposing traditional sociological definitions of the family from outside However: the personal life perspective can be criticised for taking too broad a view. Critics argue that, by including a different kinds of personal relationships we ignore what is special about relationships that are based on blood or marriage

Answer 214

social policy refers a plan or course of action introduced by the government in an attempt to solve a particular social problem. Government’s introduce policies, benefits and laws designed to address social problems. Social policies are generated in response to social problems which are identified by sociologists’ research, official statistics or data collected by various government and non-governmental groups.

Answer 215

Studying social policy enables us to examine the role that the state or government has in shaping family life. The decisions made by government reflected in their policies are shaped by their own political views and ideology about what is desirable in terms of family structures, roles and relationships. Therefore, the type of social policies introduced on the family, varies with the political party which is in power

Answer 216

The actions and policies of governments can sometimes have profound effects on families and their members. Cross-cultural and historical examples from different societies can be used to demonstrate the more extreme ways in which state policies can affect family life

Answer 217

RUSSIA: After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the government sought to destroy the old pre-revolutionary patriarchal family structure which it regarded as an obstacle to the creation of a socialist society based on equality. Consequently, the government in the 1920s changed the laws to make divorce and abortion easy to obtain, the constitution guaranteed equality between the sexes, women entered paid employment on a larger scale and the state began to provide workplace and other communal nurseries. In keeping with the Marxist perspective on the family, it was expected that the abolition of capitalist ownership of the means of production would lead to the traditional family ‘withering away’. However, the new Soviet state experienced many problems including civil war, famine and the threat of war with Nazi Germany. The need to industrialise rapidly and prepare for war meant a change of policy. Divorce laws were tightened, abortion made illegal and parents were encouraged to have more children and rewarded with bigger family allowances. The state and media glorified parenthood and highly fertile women were given the title of ‘Hero Mother of the Soviet Union’.

Answer 218

CHINA: The government introduced the ‘One Child Policy’ in an attempt to discourage population growth through its family policies. The policy was supervised by workplace family planning committees; women had to seek permission to try to become pregnant and there was often a waiting list and quota for each factory. Couples who compiled with the policy got extra benefits, such as free child healthcare and higher tax allowances and only children gained priority in education and housing later in life. Couples who broke their agreement to have only one child had to repay their allowances and pay a fine. Women faced pressure to undergo sterilisation after their first child. However, from 2016, couples could request a permit for two children.

Answer 219

ROMANIA: At the other extreme, the former communist government of Romania in the 1980s introduced a series of policies to try to drive up the birth rate, which had been falling as living standards declined. It restricted contraception and abortion, set up infertility treatment centres, made divorce more difficult, lowered the legal age of marriage to 15 and made unmarried adults and childless couples pay an extra 5% income tax.

Answer 220

NAZI GERMANY: In Nazi Germany in the 1930s, the state pursued a twofold policy. On the one hand, it encouraged the healthy and supposedly ‘racially pure’ to breed a ‘master race’ by restricting abortion and contraception. Official policy sought to keep women out of the workforce and confine them to ‘children, kitchen and church’ - the better to perform their biological role. On the other hand, the state compulsorily sterilised 375,000 disabled people that it deemed unfit to breed on the grounds of ‘physical malformation, mental retardation, epilepsy, imbecility, deafness or blindness’. Many of these people were later murdered in Nazi concentration camps.

Answer 221

These are all extreme examples e.g Romania, china, russia, nazi germany of state involvement and control of family life. By contrast with these examples, some people argue that in democratic societies such as Britain, the family is a private sphere of life in which the government does not intervene, except perhaps when things ‘go wrong’, for example, in cases of child abuse. However, sociologists argue that the state’s social policies in democratic countries, play a very important role in shaping and moulding family life to suit their ideological and political preferences. Although more subtle, the government still uses social policies in an attempt to control aspects of family life.

Answer 222

The policies developed in this era reflect the general desire of right-wing politicians (known as the New Right), to reinforce the importance of the nuclear family and conservative attitudes towards family life, which they believe were (and are) under threat. Essentially the key features of New Right ideology on the family are: - It is the building block of society - Based on a heterosexual marriage (ban on teaching about homosexuality in schools) - Two parents are essential to create social order and discipline - Roles and functions should be clearly defined - gender roles and parental roles

Answer 223

According to New Right thinking, the family works effectively when it remains stable – they believe that the conventional nuclear family is best placed to achieve this stability. Therefore, they have been extremely critical of some of the changes that have taken place both in society and in the family over recent years claiming that the general trend towards a more liberal society shown in the following patterns and trends have undermined the nuclear family: - single parent families increasing - reconstituted families increasing - increase in divorce - increase in cohabitation - decline in marriage - decline in childbearing - secularisation - same-sex families

Answer 224

The New Right, particularly the American theorist, MURRAY (1984) were very critical of past government policies (pre 1979) believing them to have contributed to the disintegration of the nuclear family. They attacked the welfare state for what they saw as encouraging ‘deviant lifestyles and family forms’. For example they argued that an over generous welfare state encouraged single parent families as they believed welfare benefits acted as an incentive for: (a) young women to become pregnant, knowing the state would look after them and their child e.g child benefits, provide council housing, housing benefits (b) fathers to abandon their responsibilities as they would see that the state would maintain their children rather than themselves show financial responsibility MURRAY argued that this would lead to children, particularly young boys growing up without a male role model and authority figure leading to discipline problems.

Answer 225

The New Right were also critical of divorce laws as they believed they made divorce too easy, taxation policies which they believed discriminated against married couples and the relaxation of laws on homosexuality. They campaigned to reassert traditional morality and family relationships by implementing new policies which supported a return to the traditional nuclear family.

Answer 226

Key family policies of the Conservative government 1979-97: 1986 Married Couples Tax Allowance: A tax incentive to encourage marriage and discourage cohabitation - married couples would gain tax relief. 1988 Benefit Cuts: benefits were withdrawn from 16-18 year olds who did not take a place on training schemes, forcing families to take responsibility for maintaining unemployed teenagers. Single-parent benefits were cut in an attempt to discourage alternative family structures; 1993 Child Support Agency: this was set up in attempt to force absent fathers to pay maintenance for their children. It was designed to discourage people from having children outside of marriage or fathers from leaving the family household. Privatising care for the elderly: this put poorer families in a position of responsibility for elderly relatives – this meant that women were often the main carers (thus restricting employment opportunities and reinforcing traditional gender roles); Refusal to introduce free/reduced cost childcare: this reinforced the idea that they favoured traditional gender roles, with men going to work and women staying at home to look after children.

Answer 227

Evaluation: Many New Right/ Conservative policies were criticised by feminists arguing that their policies were counter to improving gender equality. Their policies were also criticised for ‘blaming the victim’, in other words, blaming single parent families for societal problems. In reality, many single parent families are headed by working parents who do not rely on benefits as the main source of their income. Many sociologists and politicians argue that the family policies developed by the New Right in fact increased inequalities and poverty.

Answer 228

At the Labour conference in 1997 Blair stated ‘We cannot say we want a strong and secure society when we ignore its very foundations: family life. This is not about preaching to individuals about their family lives. It is addressing a huge social problem’. He went on to cite: teenage pregnancies, families unable to care for elderly members, poor parental role models, truancy, educational underachievement and unhappiness - as social problems which can stem from the failure to achieve a happy family life. He pledged that the government would examine every area of government policy to see how it could strengthen family life. However, reflecting on this Silva and Smart (1999) suggest that Blair was really talking about a specific type of family life. They state that ‘strong families’ are more likely to be seen as traditional nuclear families. Like the New Right, New Labour admitted that they thought family structures become more ‘complicated’ when they are single parent or reconstituted. Therefore Silva and Smart state that the measures and policies initially introduced by New Labour were based around strengthening ‘conventional’ families.

Answer 229

The government paper ‘Supporting Families’ 1999 set out New Labour views and their intentions to strengthen families and marriage. Whilst they were not so critical of other lifestyles and less conventional household types as the New Right, they still saw the nuclear family as the most desirable family unit. However, they rejected the New Right view that the family should have just one (male) earner and recognised the increased participation of women in the workplace. Therefore, New Labour policies favoured the kind of dual-earner neo-conventional family described by the functionalist Chester. Furthermore, rather than regarding single parent families as a moral problem, New Labour introduced policies that supported them, for example helping single parents with childcare so that they could gain qualifications or return to work.

Answer 230

Example of New Labour policies include: New Deal (1998): this was designed to help and assist single parents to return to work if they desire to do so; Working Families Tax Credit: designed for low-income families. It allowed parents to claim tax relief against a proportion of their childcare costs to enable parents’ to work; More generous maternity leave and pay and paternity leave: sending a clear message of support and acceptance that both parents are likely to work and a recognition of the increased role that fathers play in their children’s life; Free childcare for two and a half year olds: This made it easier for parents to return to work (it was also introduced to help children from poorer backgrounds access preschool care so that they were ready for their education); Winter Fuel Payments for the elderly: designed to assist with heating costs and reduce health issues; The Adoption and Children Act 2002: this came into effect in 2005 and gave single people and unmarried cohabiting couples including same-sex couples, the same right to adopt as married couples. The Civil Partnership Act 2004: this gave same-sex couples the same legal rights as married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property.

Answer 231

Evaluation: Many welcomed New Labour’s range of family friendly policies and some suggested that they reflected the large proportion of women in ministerial positions in the government at the time, as well as the fact that, Blair had young children himself. However, New Right critics argued that New Labour intervened too much in family life, arguing that this results in a ‘nanny state’ where individuals rely on the state rather than taking personal responsibility.

Answer 232

The Conservatives have long been divided between what Hayton (2010) calls the Modernisers: who recognise that families are more diverse and are willing to reflect this in their policies and the Traditionalists: who favour a New Right view and reject diversity as morally wrong. This division means that it has been difficult for them to maintain a consistent policy line on the family. However, the influence of the traditionalists was weakened by the fact that the Conservatives had to share power in the coalition with the Liberal Democrats. Therefore, Nick Clegg was promoting policies such as the introduction of gay marriage (2015) which provided equal opportunities for gay couples and the increase in paternity benefits which supports the idea that gender roles are becoming more equal and shared, acknowledging the increasing role that fathers play in their children’s lives. Meanwhile David Cameron continued to promote policies suggesting that he regards the nuclear family, with traditional gender roles, as desirable and ideal.

Answer 233

Some of their other policies include: - The reintroduction of the Married Couples Tax Allowance: Cut by New Labour, this policy clearly indicates a preference and adds an incentive for marriage over cohabitation. - The Legal Aid budget was cut substantially: meaning that some vulnerable groups, such as women would be unable to access legal advice if they are experiencing domestic violence. - Child Benefit became means tested: what had been a universal benefit for all parents was cut for people earning above a certain threshold. - Troubled Families Programme (2011): designed to help families who have problems and cause problems to the community around them (they see this type of family as an expensive unit). By working with local authorities the aim was to get children back into school, reduce youth crime and antisocial behaviour. - The scaling back and cutting of benefits: intended to reduce welfare dependency.

Answer 234

Evaluation: Critics argued that the Coalition government’s financial austerity policies reflected the New Right’s desire to cut public spending – leading to greater hardship for the poorest groups in society. They also attack Coalition policies for failing to support alternatives to the nuclear family and not reflecting the experiences of family life for many people in contemporary society.

Answer 235

CONSERVATIVE GOVERNMENT SOCIAL POLICY 2015 - - doubled free preschool childcare for 3/4 year olds - 15hrs to 30hrs (2017-Theresa May) - they scrapped the entitlement to housing benefit for those over the age of 21 - CSA renamed/rebranded to Child Maintenance Service (CMS) - Child benefit now limited to two children for those on benefit (2017) There hasn't been huge government initiative on the family due to the government focusing on Brexit

Answer 236

FUNCTIONALISM: Functionalists see the state as acting in the interests of society as a whole and its social policies as being for the good of all. They see policies as helping families to perform their functions more effectively and make life better for its members. Fletcher (1966) argues that the introduction of health, education and housing policies led to the development of a welfare state that supports families. It assumes that there has been a ‘march of progress’, with social policies making family life better.

Answer 237

MARXISM: Unlike functionalists, Marxists do not see social policies as benefitting all members of society equally. They see the state and its policies as serving capitalism. For example, they see the low level of state pensions as evidence that once workers are too old to produce profits they are ‘maintained’ at the lowest possible cost. Similarly, they do not accept the functionalist ‘march of progress’ view that better welfare policies produce happier families.

Answer 238

FEMINISM: Feminists believe that all social institutions, including the state and its policies, help to maintain women’s subordinate position and the unequal gender division of labour in the family. Social policy often works on assumptions about what the ‘normal’ family is like and in doing so the effect of these policies is often to reinforce that type of family at the expense of others. Land (1978) argues that social policies often assume that the ideal family is the patriarchal nuclear family with a male provider and female homemaker, along with dependent children. Tax and benefits policies assume the main wage-earner is the husband and this can make it impossible for wives to claim social security benefits in their own right, since it is expected that their husbands will provide. This then reinforces women’s dependence on their husbands. Leonard (1978) argues that even where policies appear to support women, they may still act as a form of social control over women, reinforcing patriarchal assumptions and dictating family roles and responsibilities, eg maternity leave and child benefit. However, feminists have been criticised as other policies such as equal pay and sex discrimination laws, benefits for lone parents, refuges for women escaping domestic violence and equal rights to divorce could all be said to challenge the patriarchal family.

Answer 239

POSTMODERNISM: Donzelot (1977) sees policy as a form of state power over families. He uses the postmodernist Foucault’s (1976) concept of surveillance. Foucault sees power not just as something held by the government or state, but as diffused throughout society and found within all relationships. In particular he sees professionals such as doctors and social workers as exercising power over their clients by using their expert knowledge. Donzelot applies these ideas to the family. He is interested in how professionals carry out surveillance of families. He argues that social workers, health visitors and doctors use their knowledge to control and change families. Donzelot calls this ‘the policing of families’. Surveillance is not targeted on all social classes. Poor families are more likely to be seen as ‘problem’ families and the cause of crime and anti-social behaviour. These are the families that professionals target for ‘improvement’ eg parents of young offenders, truants or badly behaved children may be forced to attend parenting classes to learn the ‘correct’ way to bring up their children. Donzelot is critical of social policy and sees it as a form of state control over the family.

Answer 240

GENDER REGIMES: Feminists argue that a country’s policies on taxation, childcare, welfare services and equal opportunities will affect whether women can work full-time or whether they have to forgo paid work to care for children or elderly relatives. They believe that in the main, SP reinforces the patriarchal family. However, they recognise that this is not inevitable and that SPs can and have been introduced in some countries to encourage more equal family relationships. DREW (1995) uses the concept of ‘gender regimes’ to describe how SPs in different counties can either encourage or discourage gender equality in the family and at work. She identifies two types of gender regime following types of family policies - familistic gender regimes - individualistic gender regimes

Answer 241

She identifies two types of gender regime following types of family policies: (a) Familistic gender regimes: policies are based on a traditional gender division e.g. in Greece, there is little state welfare or publicly funded childcare reflecting a traditional division of labour – therefore, women have to rely heavily on support from their extended kin rather than SPs. (b) Individualistic gender regimes: where polices are based on the belief that husbands and wives should be treated the same. Wives are not assumed to be financially dependent on their husbands, so each partner has a separate entitlement to state benefits, e.g. in Sweden, policies treat husbands and wives as equally responsible both for breadwinning and domestic tasks. Equal opportunities policies, state provision of childcare, parental leave and good quality welfare services mean that women are less dependent on their husbands and have more opportunities to work.

Answer 242

STATE V MARKET: DREW (1995) argues that most EU countries are moving away from the traditional patriarchal family towards individualist gender regimes. However, policies such as publicly funded childcare do not come cheap and involve major conflicts about who should benefit from SPs and who should pay for them. Therefore, it would be naïve to assume a ‘march of progress’ towards gender equality is inevitable. Feminists point out that since the global recession that began in 2008, cutbacks in government spending throughout Europe have seen the state retreat from providing welfare and have led to pressure on women to take more responsibility for caring for family members. Neo-liberal welfare policies, where individuals are encouraged to use the market rather than the state to meet their needs have also contributed to this trend. Nevertheless, differences between European countries demonstrate that SPs can play a significant role in promoting or preventing gender equality in the family.

Answer 243

According to Parsons (1955) conjugal roles were segregated in the traditional NF: The husband performs an instrumental role and the wife performs an expressive role. He argues that this division of labour is based on biological differences and claims that this division of labour is beneficial to both men and women, their children and society. Some conservative thinkers and the New Right, also hold this view. However, other sociologists have different views and are critical of this traditional functionalist stance:

Answer 244

``` As Functionalists, Willmott and Young (1962) take a ‘march of progress’ view of the history of the family. In their study of traditional working class families in Bethnal Green, East London in the 1950s, they found much evidence of segregated conjugal roles. However, their research conducted in the 1960s found evidence that more women were becoming wage earners and men were taking a greater share of domestic tasks. They believed relationships were becoming more egalitarian and symmetrical. In short, progress had been made. ```

Answer 245

FEMINIST VIEWS: Feminist sociologists reject Parsons’ view that the division of labour is natural. In addition, they argue that it benefits men. They also reject Wilmott and Young’s view that relationships were becoming more egalitarian and symmetrical. They recognise that some changes have taken place , but argue that the domestic division of labour is still unequal and gender-specific.

Answer 246

``` JOINT CRRS: More egalitarian Symmetrical Integrated Less gender-specific ``` ``` SEGREGATED CRRS: More patriarchal Unequal Differentiated Gender-specific ```

Answer 247

The functionalists, WILMOTT and YOUNG take a ‘march of progress’ view of the history of the family. They see family life as gradually improving for all of its members, becoming more equal and democratic. They conducted a large scale survey in which 1,928 people were interviewed in the London area. The results formed the basis of their book ‘The Symmetrical Family’ (1973). They argued that the privatised home-centred nuclear family which was becoming the norm appeared to be far more family orientated and symmetrical in relation to domestic, work and leisure activities. They believe that there has been a long-term trend away from segregated, towards joint and integrated conjugal roles. However, they recognised that due to the principle of stratified diffusion, this change in the nature of gender roles and relationships was initially more of a middle than a working class trend, but they found much evidence of this in the community they were studying which was predominately working class.

Answer 248

principle of stratified diffusion refers to a norm that the middle class began to peculate down to the working class e.g trends in the family start higher up in the hierarchy and gradually make its way down

Answer 249

They acknowledged that a degree of role allocation still occurred, but argued that there was much evidence from their research that the egalitarian marriage had arrived. They concluded that the most important factor making relationships more symmetrical, joint and egalitarian was the increasing tendency for females to be working outside of the home in paid employment. This they argued, increased females bargaining position in the home and encouraged males to participate in domestic labour. However, they also recognised that the increased availability of labour saving devices reduced the time spent on domestic labour and also contributed to male participation in domestic labour. Furthermore, they also found more evidence of symmetry among younger couples and those who are more geographically mobile

Answer 250

Bargaining position refers to the idea that if women are working outside the home, it encourages males to participate in domestic labour which means women essentially have better bargaining positions

Answer 251

Younger couples may have more joint or integrated roles as they may be geographically mobile. Younger couples have more equal relationships as they share roles and both have jobs - gender roles are considered 'old, younger couples are brought up in a different generation / roles, so less influenced or defined by fixed gender roles

Answer 252

However, their work has attracted much criticism. Feminist sociologists reject this 'march of progress' view and argue that little has changed: men and women remain unequal within the family, conjugal roles are defined by gender and greater priority is given to male's paid work. They see this inequality as stemming from the fact that the family and society are patriarchal. Women occupy a subordinate and dependent role within the family and wider society.

Answer 253

A very different picture of the nature of conjugal role-relationships emerged from the work of the feminist, OAKLEY. In the ‘Sociology of Housework’ (1974) she argued that the idea of the symmetrical marriage was a myth and stated that Wilmott and Young’s claims are exaggerated. She was critical of aspects of their methodology as they found that 72% of men in their research ‘helped’ with housework, other than washing-up, during the course of an average week. This was viewed as an impressive finding and used to support the idea of symmetry. However, OAKLEY pointed out that one other sole activity such as ironing a shirt would be included in this statistic – this she argued is not substantial enough evidence to prove symmetry. From her research she found signs of greater participation by males in childcare and housework, but she argued that few relationships could really be described as egalitarian, only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in housework and only 25% had a high level of participation in childcare. She also concluded that domestic labour is still devalued in society, it is constantly down-played and not seen as ‘real work’.

Answer 254

The word 'help' when used by men are exaggerated as in her research men claiming to help were only going one job/activity. Help is not detailed and is not substantial to prove symmetry or show that relationships are equal because men do one chore . job during the week Not enough evidence

Answer 255

Research by WARDE et al (1990) supports Oakley’s findings. Using a sample of 323 households in the North West they found that the distribution of labour within the home was still largely gendered with males taking responsibility for home maintenance and females for routine housework and childcare. 42% of males thought that they were doing less than their fair share. Furthermore, research by FERRI and SMITH (1996) using data from the National Child Development Survey of a sample of 2,800 fathers and 3,192 mothers also undermined WILMOTT and YOUNG’S conclusions. They found that increased employment of females outside of the home had little impact on a redistribution of domestic and childcare responsibilities. They reported that it was still very rare for fathers to take primary responsibility for their children regardless of whether they worked or not or whether couples were dual-earners and that it is still predominately mothers who are left to take time off work if their children are ill etc.

Answer 256

THE FUNCTIONALIST VIEW: Like, WILMOTT and YOUNG, some recent sociologists take an optimistic view arguing that women working is leading to a more equal division of labour at home. For example: GERSHUNY (1994) found that wives who worked full-time did less domestic work: - Wives who weren’t employed did 83% of the housework - Wives who worked part-time did 82 % - Wives who worked full-time did 73% He also found that the longer a woman had been in paid employment, the more housework her husband did (however males still tend to take responsibility for different tasks) and couples whose parents had a more equal relationship were likely to share housework more equally themselves. GERSHUNY explains this trend as lagged adaptation, where there has been a gradual change in social values adapting to the fact that women are now more likely than ever to be working full-time. SULLIVAN (2000) analysed national data from 1975, 87 and 97 and also found a trend towards greater equality where men were increasingly participating in traditional ‘women’s’ tasks and women had a smaller share of the domestic work. Furthermore, MAN-YEE KAN (2001) found that income, age and education affected how much housework women did: better paid, younger, better-educated women did less housework. For example, every £10,000 increase in a woman’s annual income reduces her weekly housework time by 2 hours. The BRITISH SOCIAL ATTITUDES survey (2013) found a fall in the number of people who think it is a man’s job to earn money and a woman’s job to look after the home and family. Only 13% of men and 12% of women agreed with this view

Answer 257

THE FEMINIST VIEW: The above views are optimistic and similar to WILLMOTT and YOUNG’s ‘March of progress’ view that conjugal roles are becoming more symmetrical. However, feminists argue that the impact of women’s paid work on conjugal roles has been minimal. They highlight that increasingly today women now have to carry a ‘dual burden’ of paid and domestic work and also point out that any reduction in the amount of time women spend on domestic labour is a reflection of economic developments rather than a cultural change in norms and values. For example: CROMPTON (1997) accepts GERSHUNY’s evidence but explains it differently, in terms of economic factors rather than changing values or role models. She believes that as women’s earning power increases relative to men’s, so men do more in the home. However, recognising that men still earn more than women, (in 7 out of 8 households, men earn more) she concludes that as long as earnings remain unequal, so too will the division of labour. SILVER (1987) and SCHOR (1993) also emphasise economic developments in reducing the burden of housework on women. They claim that (a) Housework has become commercialised and (b) women working means that they can afford to buy goods and services. As a result, they believe that the burden of housework on women has decreased, SCHOR goes so far to claim that these developments have led to the ‘death of the housewife role’. However, critics claim that this trend is only applicable to more middle class women. Furthermore, even if commercialization has reduced the amount of domestic work that has to be done, this does not prove that couples are sharing, but that there are less tasks to do.

Answer 258

Most feminists argue that despite more women working, there is little evidence of a ‘new man’ who shares the domestic work. Rather, they argue that many women have simply acquired a ‘dual burden’ of paid work and domestic work. They believe that the family remains patriarchal as men benefit from both women’s earnings and their domestic labour. FERRI and SMITH (1996) provide evidence of the dual burden as they found that increased employment of women outside of the home has had little impact on the division of domestic labour. Based on a sample of 1,589 33 year-old fathers and mothers, the father took the main responsibility for childcare in fewer than 4% of families. Even where a woman works and her husband is unemployed, there is little evidence of husbands doing more at home. MORRIS (1990) found that men who had suffered a loss of their ‘masculine’ role as a result of unemployment, saw domestic work as ‘women’s work’ and to be avoided. Research by RAMOS (2003) found that where men are not in paid work and their partner worked full-time, their domestic labour matches that of their partner - 19 hours per week. The BRITISH SOCIAL ATTITUDES survey (2013) found that on average men did 8 hours in comparison to women’s 13 hours on housework a week and men spent 10 hours in comparison to women’s 23 hours on care for family members. Overall, therefore, women did twice as much as men. The survey also found that couples continue to divide household tasks along traditional gender lines. Furthermore, BRAUN, VINCENT and BALL (2011) found that in only 3 families out of 70 studied, was the father the main carer. Most were ‘background fathers’; helping with childcare was more about their relationship with their partner than their responsibility towards their children. Most fathers held a ‘provider ideology’ that their role was as breadwinners, while the mothers saw themselves as the primary carers. For many women, access to full-day childcare is important. ARBER and GINN (1995) found that middle class women may be able to afford this, but many working class women can’t. As a result, they remain trapped in a vicious circle of childcare responsibilities and low-paid, part-time employment. These class differences are illustrated by GREGSON and LOWE’s (1994) study of the employment of domestic ‘help’ by dual-earner middle class families. These couples found it more economical to employ working class women as nannies and cleaners than for the ‘wife’ to stay at home. Unlike the middle class, most working class women cannot afford to employ someone to do their housework for them so are more likely to carry a dual burden. Much of the research reviewed focuses on more easily quantifiable aspects associated with conjugal roles. They rarely measure the qualitative differences in the roles played

Answer 259

However, DUNCOMBE and MARSDEN (1995) argue that women are expected not only to do a double shift of both housework and paid work, but also to do a triple shift that includes emotional work. ‘Emotion’ work is a ‘labour of love’ and is usually seen as caring for other family members and involves handling and monitoring the worries and frustrations of others. It demands drawing on one’s own emotional resources and exercising emotional control and it is work usually done by women. Later research by HOCHSCHILD (2013) confirms this additional responsibility that women assume. According to SOUTHERTON (2011) another responsibility that usually falls to mothers is that of coordinating, scheduling and managing the family’s ‘quality time’ together. Working mothers find themselves increasingly juggling an increased volume of activities including the demands of work and career, personal leisure time and family, while at the same time managing and coordinating their own and their families’ social activities. These findings are similar to those of Oakley four decades earlier. Reviewing the research, it seems clear that the increased trend for women to be in paid employment has had a very limited impact on the nature of conjugal role relationships. In reality women are now shouldering a dual or triple burden and even when men are doing more in the home, domestic tasks remain gendered.

Answer 260

- cultural or ideological explanation of inequality | - the material or economic explanation of inequality

Answer 261

The cultural or ideological explanation of inequality: In this view, the division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms and values that shape the gender roles in our culture. Women perform more domestic labour simply because that is what society expects them to do and has socialised them to do. Examples to the support this explanation: Oakley Feminists The material or economic explanation of inequality: In this view, the fact that women generally earn less than men means it is economically rational for women to do more of the housework and childcare while men spend more of their time earning money. Examples to support this explanation: ``` Gershuny and Laurie's findings Silver and Schor Cromption Willmott and Young Gregson and Lowe ```

Answer 262

DUNNE'S (1999) study of 37 lesbian couples with dependent children found that they were more likely than heterosexual women to: - describe their relationship as equal, share housework and childcare equally and view childcare positively - give equal importance to both partners careers DUNNE argues that this is because heterosexuals are under pressure to conform to deeply ingrained masculine and feminine 'gender scripts' by performing different kinds of domestic tasks that confirm their gender identities. In contrast, in lesbian relationships, household tasks are not linked to particular gender scripts and this allows lesbian couples to create a more equal relationship. This provides support for the radical feminist view that relationships between men and women are inevitably patriarchal and that women can only really achieve equality in same-sex relationships.

Answer 263

WEEKS (1999) and SMART (2007) also found same-sex relationships to offer greater possibilities of equality because the division of labour is open to negotiation and agreement and not based on patriarchal tradition. Nevertheless, DUNNE also found that, where one partner did much more paid work than the other, the time that each partner spent on domestic work was likely to be unequal. This suggests that paid work still affects the division of labour, even in same-sex relationships.

Answer 264

Sociologists are interested in who has the power in a relationship and whether or not it is shared. Power has been measured by studying (a) decision-making and (b)financial control

Answer 265

DECISION-MAKING: Edgell's (1980) study of professional couples found that: - very important decision(finance, charge of job or moving house) were either taken by the male alone or taken jointly, but with the male having the final say - Important decisions (children's education or where to go on holiday) were usually taken jointly, and seldon by the female alone - Less important decisions (home declaration, children's clothes and food purchases) were usually made by the female Given the principle of stratified diffusion, Edwell was surprised by the findings of his study, expecting to find greater evidence of shared decision-making When the study was repeated by Hardill 17 years later, it was found that middle class wives, even in dual-career families, still generally deferred to their husbands in major decisions

Answer 266

However, research by Phal (1989) and Laurie and Gershuny (2000) suggest that as women's earning power increases they are likely to experience equality in decision making as it increases their bargaining position materially Vagler and Pahl (2001) found that decision-making was shaped by income. In their study, one-fifth of households were egalitarian decision-making units. Most households were controlled by men because they earned higher incomes

Answer 267

FINANCIAL CONTROL: Much research shows that although pooling (where both partners have access to income and joint responsibility for expenditure; for example a joint bank account) is on the increase - particularly in dual career couples, it is far from being the norm in many relationships Research also reveals that social class and ethnicity are likely to impact on whether control of finances is shared. In many households women have no entitlement to a share of the household income in her own right

Answer 268

PAHL (2007) recognises that pooling money doesn’t necessarily mean that a relationship is equal, arguing that we also need to know who controls the pooled money and whether each partner contributes equally (despite any differences in their incomes). For example, if a man earns twice as much as his wife, but both partners put the same amount into the joint account, does this count as equality? Nor does each partner keeping their money separately always mean inequality. For example, VOGLER et al (2007) found that cohabiting couples were less likely to pool their money – perhaps from a desire to maintain their independence. Yet evidence suggests that cohabiting couples are more likely than married couples to share domestic tasks equally. These ideas point to the fact that we need to understand the meaning of money for couples.

Answer 269

As NYMAN (2003) notes, money has no automatic, fixed or natural meaning and different couples can define it in different ways. These meanings can reflect the nature of the relationship. The personal life perspective focuses on the meanings couples give to who controls the money. From this perspective, the meanings that money may have in relationships cannot be taken for granted. For example, while we might assume that one partner controlling the money is a sign of inequality, for some couples it may not have this meaning. For example, there is evidence that same-sex couples often give a different meaning to the control of money in the relationship. SMART (2007) found that some gay men and lesbians attached no importance to who controlled the money and did not see the control of money as symbolic of either equality of inequality in the relationship. She found greater freedom for same-sex couples to do what suits them as a couple and suggests this is because they do not enter into relationships with the same ‘historical, gendered, heterosexual baggage of cultural meanings around money’ that see money as a source of power. Similarly, WEEKS et al (2001) found that the typical pattern was pooling some money for household spending, combined with separate accounts for personal spending. This money management system reflects a value of ‘co-independence’ – where there is sharing, but where each partner retains control over some money. This is like the pattern among cohabiting couples found by VOGLER et al. Hence supporters of the personal life perspective argue that it is essential always to start from the personal meanings of the actors involved in the situation.

Answer 270

ENDING THE SILENCE ON ‘HONOUR KILLINGS’ Rukhsana Naz 19: She wanted to divorce the husband she married at 15 and had only seen twice, to marry her lover. Rukhsana was seven months pregnant when her mother held her down as her brother strangled her. They were both jailed for life at Nottingham crown court in 1999. Heshu Yones 16: The A-Level pupil from West London was hacked to death by her Kurdish Muslim father because he believed she had a boyfriend. Abdalla Yones was advised on his actions by other men in his community. He was jailed for life in 2003. Banaz Mahmod 20: Her father and uncle were convicted of her murder in 2007. Banaz was strangled at her Surrey home because she had fallen in love with a man her family did not want her to marry. She had suffered years of beatings and an earlier attempt on her life had been reported to police. Her boyfriend is still in hiding. Shafilea Ahmed 17: The body of the Cheshire teenager was found in 2004. Friends said that her fears of a forced marriage had led Shafilea to drink bleach in a failed suicide attempt in 2003. A coroner recorded a verdict of unlawful killing; no one has been charged. Tasleem Begum 20: Run down and crushed by a car in 1995, Tasleem’s cased caused an outrage when her brother-in-law pleaded guilty to manslaughter on the grounds of provocation and was sentenced to six-and-a-half years. The Bedford woman was married to an older Pakistani man but had fallen for another man. Samaira Nazir 25: Pinned down and stabbed 18 times by her brother and 17 year old cousin, Samaira was killed at her family home in Southall, Middlesex, in front of her parents and two young nieces. The family was angry that she wanted to marry an Afghan man. Surjit Athwal, 27: A customs officer and mother of two, she had asked for a divorce when she was taken to India in 1998 by her in-laws and killed. Her body was never found and it took her family 9 years to get justice. At the Old Bailey in 2007, her husband and his mother were jailed for life. Mian Mehmood, 29: Four men were convicted of the execution of Mian in Halifax, West Yorkshire in in 2007. One of them was his brother-in-law, Arzan Khan, furious that his sister, Yasmin, had secretly married Mian and not submitted to an arranged marriage arranged years before in Pakistan by her family. (Adapted from ‘The Guardian’ 18th Oct 2009)

Answer 271

Sanghera believes about 3% of women manage to escape forced marriage in the UK and when they leave they have to live with fear and rejection of not only their families but also their communities and sometimes their friends. Police estimate at least 12 are dying each year in the UK but others will be hidden – forced suicides and murders made to look like suicide are widely believed to take place undetected. Women aged 16-24 from Pakistani, Indian and Bangladeshi backgrounds are three times more likely to kill themselves than the national average for that age and it is impossible to tell what pressures some must have been under. Honour is about a collection of practices used by the family to control behaviour, to prevent perceived shame, but there's no honour in murder, rape, or kidnapping and with 25% of the [cases] we are seeing involving a person under 18: this is a child abuse issue too an increase in young men and boys – it's now about 15% of the total numbers," Honour-based violence can be a socioeconomic issue. Experts say there is a strong correlation between violence against women and issues such as inequality between men. In deprived communities where men are struggling to earn a living they can feel subordinated and lacking in respect, and so try to get their authority back by dominating anyone below them, usually women. In Pakistan the practice of honour killing – called karo-kari – sees more than 10,000 women die each year.

Answer 272

The home office (2013) defines domestic violence (DV) and abuse as: 'Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender of sexuality'. This can include psychological, financial and emotional violence or abuse, cohesive behaviour or control.

Answer 273

A common view of DV is that it is the behaviour of a few disturbed or 'sick' individuals, and that its causes are psychological rather than social. However, sociologists have challenged this view: DV is far too widespread to be simply the work of a few disturbed individuals. According to the Women's Aid Federation (2014), DV accounts for between a sixth and a quarter of all recorded crime. The CSEW(2013) found that two million people reported having been victims of domestic abuse during the previous years. DV does not occur randomly but follows particular social patterns and these patterns have social causes. The most striking of these patterns is that it is mainly violence by men against women. For example, Coleman et al (2007) found that women were more likely than men to have experienced intimate violence across all four types of abuse - partner abuses, family abuse, sexual assault and stalking. According to Coleman and Osborne (2010) two women a week - or one third of all female homicide victims - are killed by a partner or former partner.

Answer 274

Patterns of domestic abuse are confirmed by Dobash and Dobash (1997 and 2007) research in scotland, based on police and court records and interviews with women in women's refuges. They cite examples of wives being slapped, pushed about, beaten, raped or killed by their husbands. They found that violent incidents could be set off by what a husband saw as a challenge to his authority, such as his wife asking why he was late home for a meal. They argue that marriage legitimises violence against women by conferring power and authority on husbands and dependency on wives

Answer 275

While most victims are women, men are also victims of DV. However, there is a very significant gender gap in terms of the frequency, severity and effects of abuse suffered: Walby and Allen (2004) found that women were much more likely to be victims of multiple incidents of abuse and of sexual violence. According to Ansara and Hindin (2011) women suffered more severe violence and control, with more serious psychological effects. They also found that women were much more likely than men to be fearful of their partners. Dar (2013) points out that it can be difficult to count separate violence incidents because abuse may be a continuation e.g living under constant threat or may occur so often that the victim cannot reliably count the instances.

Answer 276

OS on DV understate the true extent of the problem for two main reasons: Firstly victims may be unwilling to report it to the police. Yearnshire (199&) found that on average a women suffers 35 assaults before making a report. DV is the violent crime least likely to be reported. Dar argues that victims of DV are less likely than victims of other forms of violence to report the offence because they believe that it is not a matter for the police or that it is too trivial or fear reprisals. Secondly, police and prosecutors may be reluctant to record, investigate or prosecute those cases that are reported to them. According to Cheal (1991), this reluctance is because the police and other state agencies are not prepared to become involved in the family.

Answer 277

According to Cheal (1991), this reluctance is because the police and other state agencies are not prepared to become involved in the family. 1 - That the family is a private sphere, so access to it by the state agencies should be limited 2 - That the family is a good thing (safe haven) and so agencies tend to neglect the darker side of family life 3 - That individuals are free agents, so it is assumed that if a woman is experiencing abuse, she is free to leave. However, this is not true. Male violence is often coupled with male economic power: abused women are often financially dependent on their husbands and unable to leave. Lack of action by the police and prosecutors means that cases successfully prosecuted are merely the tip of a much larger iceberg of abuse. For example, during 2006-11 conviction rates stood at a mere 6.5% of incidents reported to the police.

Answer 278

Two explanations of DV dominate: the radical feminist explanation focuses on the role of patriarchal ideas, cultural values and institutions and the material explanation, emphasises economic factors such as lack of resources

Answer 279

Radical feminists such as Miller (1970) and Firestone (1970) argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy. They see the family and marriage as the key institutions in patriarchal society and the main source of women's oppression. Within the family, men dominate women through DV or the threat of it. Radical feminists argue that widespread DV is an inevitable feature of patriarchal society and serves to preserve the power than all men have over all women. This helps to explain why most DV is committed by men. This is a sociological rather than a psychological explanation by linking patterns of DV to patriarchal ideas, cultural values and norms about gender and marriage. Furthermore, male domination of state institutions helps to explain the reluctance of the police and courts to deal effectively with cases of DV.

Answer 280

- DV is linked to patriarchal ideas, cultural values about gender and marriage - DV seeks to preserve the power men have over women - Women can also be causers of domestic violence and men can be victims - does not provide an explanation and neglects males as DV victims for female violence against males. - heteronormative and disregards other family types - critics argue that it fails to explain violence with lesbian relationships - DV can be found in cohabitation not only marriage - Police are more likely to intervene today, there are specialist units and the police and specialised and trained in relation to DV and intervention - many relationships/families are not governed by the patriarchal norms and are egalitarian - Elliot (1996) rejects the radical feminist claim that all men benefit from violence against women as not all men are violent and are most opposed to DV - Critics criticise radical feminists for assuming all women are at risk: research shows that those on low incomes, living in deprived areas, those with a long illness or disability, or young people are more vulnerable or at risk

Answer 281

The materialist explanation of DV focuses on economic and material factors such as inequalities in income and housing to explain why some groups are more at risk, than others. For example, Wilkinson and Pickett (2010) see DV as the result of stress on family members caused by social inequality. Those on low income and living in overcrowded accommodation are likely to experience higher levels of stress. This reduces their chances of maintaining stable, caring relationships and increases the risk of conflict and violence. For example, worries about money, jobs and housing spill into domestic conflict as tempers become frayed. Furthermore, lack of money and time restricts people's social circle and reduces social support for those under stress. The findings of Wilkinson and Pickett show that not all people are equally in danger of suffering DV: those will less power, status, wealth or income are often at greatest risk

Answer 282

- they neglect the fact that people who have status and wealth can still be victims and can go undetected due to the more focus on social groups who are likely to be 'problem families' - anyone is at risk not a lower class problem = explanation demonises the working class and perpetuates stereotypes of the working class and poorer families - disregards or neglects other social groups focuses on certain social classes or communities - doesn't explain the gendered nature of domestic violence and why more women than men are victims of DV

Answer 283

Sociologists see childhood (C) as socially constructed – something created, made and defined by society. They argue that what people mean by C and the position that children occupy in society, is not fixed but differs between different times, places and cultures. This can be illustrated by comparing the western idea of childhood today with childhood in other societies (cross-cultural variations) and in the past (historical differences).

Answer 284

The modern western notion of childhood: It is largely accepted in our society that C is a special time of life and that children are fundamentally different from adults – physically and psychologically immature. As a result, it is believed that their lack of skills, knowledge and experience means they need a lengthy protected period of nurturing and socialisation before they are ready for adult society and its responsibilities. Reflecting this, PILCHER (1995) states that the most important feature of modern childhood is separateness. Childhood is seen as a clear and distinct life stage and children occupy a separate status from adults. Linked to the idea of the separateness of children’s status is the idea of C as a ‘golden age’ of happiness and innocence. As a result, children are viewed as vulnerable and in need of protection from the dangers of the adult world – ‘quarantined’. Unlike adults, they lead lives of leisure and play and are largely excluded from paid work. However, this view of C as a separate age status is not found in all societies – it is not universal. As WAGG (1992) states ‘Childhood is social constructed. It is, in other words, what members of particular places, say it is. There is no single universal childhood experienced by all. So, childhood isn’t natural and should be distinguished from mere biological immaturity.’ This means that, while all humans go through the same stages of physical development, different cultures construct or define this differently.

Answer 285

SEPARATENESS: - childhood lack knowledge must go to school whereas adults do have skill and knowledge - children are safeguarded and considered to be under supervision while adults enjoy a level of independence - work age, voting age etc - adults - responsibilities come with age - products such as toys aimed at kids while adults have their own products

Answer 286

Cross-cultural differences in childhood: BENEDICT (1934) argues that children in simpler, non-industrial societies are treated differently from their modern western counterparts, namely other cultures do not necessarily see such a great difference between children and adults – there is much less of a dividing line between the behaviour expected of adults and children: (a) they have more responsibility at home and work; (b) less value is placed on obedience to adult authority and (c) children’s sexual behaviour is often viewed differently. Provide evidence of research that shows these cross-cultural differences: - Punch (2001) - Research in Rural Bolivia - found that at the age of 5 children take on work, responsibilities, both within the home and the community without question. - Holves (1974) conducted research in the islands in the west pacific - 'too young' was never a reason used to exclude children from any activity - Firth (1970) islands in the west pacific - found that there was less emphasis on obedience to adults; doing as you were told by an adult is a concession (privileged) as an opposed to a right - Malinowski (1957) island in west pacific - found that adults took an attitude of tolerance and amused interest towards children's sexual exploration and activities The research examples above illustrate that C is not a fixed universal experience, but is socially constructed and varies from culture to culture.

Answer 287

Historical differences in childhood: Many sociologists and historians argue that C as we understand it today is a relatively recent invention. According to ARIES (1960), in medieval Europe, the idea of C did not exist. Provide evidence of his research findings: - In the middle ages, C did not exist as an separate age stage - a child entered adult society wide society immediately after weaning (stood breastfed) began work from an early age - From analysis of medieval art work/paintings, it was clear that children were represented as mini-adults. No characteristics of C were depicted, children were viewed as adults but on a smaller scale - The law made no distinction between adults and children (punishments were the same) SHORTER (1975) argues that parental attitudes towards children were very different, e.g. high death rates encouraged indifference and neglect, especially towards infants. For example, it was not uncommon for parents to give a newborn baby the name of a recently dead sibling, to refer to the baby as ‘it’, or to forget how many children they had! However, ARIES argues that elements of the modern notion of C gradually began to emerge from the (13th onwards as a result of: - schools - increasingly recognised by the church, children are fragile creatures of God, in need of discipline - clothing - particularly in relation to up class, a distinction could be seen in relation to children's clothing (dressed differently) - by the 18th century, handbooks on children were becoming available, parenting manuals on how to bring up children He claims that these developments culminated in the emergence of the modern ‘cult of childhood’ – adding that the (20th was the ‘century of the child’ where the world became obsessed with C. However, POLLOCK (1983) argues that it is more appropriate to say that in the Middle Ages, society simply had a different notion of C, rather than arguing it did not exist. However, his work remains valuable as it demonstrates how ideas about children and their social status have varied over time.

Answer 288

Most sociologists argue that the process of industrialisation is a key factor bringing about the modern idea of childhood and the changed status of children.

Answer 289

The following changes that occurred during the (19th and (20 led to changes in the position of children and the emergence of ‘childhood’: Laws restricting child labour - From being economic assets who could earn a wage for their family, laws excluding children from paid work resulted in children became an economic liability, financially dependent on their parents. ``` -The introduction of compulsory schooling in 1880: This combined with point 1, separated a child’s world from an adult’s world, particularly for the children of the poor (middle and upper class children were already receiving an education). ``` - Child protection and welfare legislation: First of all, the 1889 Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act and then a century later, the 1989 Children Act made the welfare of the child a fundamental principle underpinning the work of agencies such as social services. -The growth of the age of children’s rights: The 1989 Children Act defines parents as having ‘responsibilities’ rather than ‘rights’ in relation to children and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989, lays down basic rights such as entitlement to healthcare and education, protection from harm and abuse and the right to participate in decisions that affect them. - Declining family size and declining IMR: These have encouraged parents to make a greater financial and emotional investment in the fewer children they now have. - Children’s development became the subject of medical knowledge: DONZELOT (1977) observes how theories of child development that began to appear from the late (19th, stressed that children need supervision and protection. - Laws and policies that apply specifically to children These are designed to emphasise and reinforce the idea that children are different from adults and so different rules must be applied to them. This is reflected in laws which provide minimum age restrictions to limit their activities. - to drink alcohol or smoke / certain drugs - certain access to movies - driving / voting / working - social media - certain product restrictions

Answer 290

The experience of childhood has certainly changed, however there is a debate as to whether the changes represent an improvement in the experiences and condition of childhood. March of Progress theorists interpret the changes positively believing the changing position of children is a dramatic improvement to the past such as healthcare, legislation, compulsory education, law and policies etc.

Answer 291

THE MARCH OF PROGRESS VIEW: This view argues that the position of children in western societies has been steadily improving over the last few centuries and today it is better than ever. Writers such as ARIES and SHORTER agree with this view and argue that today’s children are better cared for, protected and educated, enjoy better health and have more rights than previous generations. For example, children today are protected from harm and exploitation by laws, an army of specialists cater for their educational, emotional, psychological and medical needs, better health and medical care means children have a much better chance of survival and higher living standards combined with smaller families size means children’s needs are catered for etc. They argue that the family has become much more child-centred. Children are no longer ‘seen and not heard’ and instead are the focal point of the family, consulted on decisions as never before. Parents today invest a great deal in their children emotionally and financially (one estimate suggests that by the time a child is 21, they will have cost their parents over £230,000). Furthermore, they have high aspirations for them, hoping they have more opportunities than they had. March of progress theorists state that it is not just the family that is child-centred; so too is society as a whole (reflected in the level of media output and leisure activities which are designed specifically for children).

Answer 292

THE CONFLICT VIEW: Conflict theorists, such as Marxists and Feminists disagree with this view arguing that the March of Progress view is based on an idealised image that ignores important problems and inequalities that many children face: - children can still live in toxic or abusive households - class inequalities still apparent despite protection - children feel lack of freedom - parents may be emotionally manipulative obliged to listen to them - parents unsupportive - cultural differences, gender and class inequalities - bullying - inequalities among children gender - girls expected to domestic roles whereas boys expected to mess about - taught to act with their gender - toys are gendered ethnicity - racism or stereotypes religion - restrictions representation - not seeing other races reflected in toys social class - opportunities difference - resources, toys, schools, childhood even varies - inequalities between adults control over childrens space control over childrens time control over childrens bodies control over childrens access to resources Although many argue that the UK is a child-centred society, this view can be challenged: Child abuse exists. This can be physical, sexual or emotional Bullying takes place in schools Divorce has increased and sociologists such as functionalists and New Right argue that this has a very negative effect on children

Answer 293

Some sociologists argue that children in the UK today are experiencing what PALMER (2006) calls ‘toxic childhood’. She argues that rapid cultural and technological changes in the past 25 years have damaged children’s emotional, intellectual and physical development. These changes range from junk food, computer games, intensive marketing to children, to the long hours worked by parents and the growing emphasis on testing in education. Concerns have also been expressed about young people’s behaviour. MARGO and DIXON (2006) have drawn on recent studies which show that UK youth are at the top or near the top of international league tables for obesity, self-harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence, early sexual experience and teenage pregnancies. A UNICEF survey 2007 ranked the UK 21st out of 25 for children’s well-being. These concerns reveal an anxiety about the modern notion of childhood and show that the idea of childhood as an innocent and protected stage is under threat. However, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about childhood as not all children are affected equally by these negative trends. Furthermore, there are many developments which point towards the end of childhood – where theorists argue that childhood as a distinctive age period is disappearing (or at least getting shorter). However other evidence points towards the continuation of childhood as a separate age-status – but an age phase which is being reshaped and reformed as a consequence of key patterns and trends in society which impact on childhood.

Answer 294

Conflict sociologists such as Marxists and feminists disagree with the functionalist ‘March of Progress’ view on childhood believing it to be based on a false and idealised image which ignores important inequalities that children face: 1. There are inequalities among children in terms of the opportunities and risks they face – many today remain unprotected and badly cared for. 2. The inequalities between children and adults are greater than ever – children today face greater control, oppression and dependency, not greater care and protection.

Answer 295

INEQUALITIES AMONG CHILDREN: Not all children share the same status or experiences. There are key differences in terms of the following: (a) Nationality: experience different childhoods and life chances. (b) Gender: Hillman (1993) boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses and go out unaccompanied at night. Bonke (1999) found that girls do more domestic labour especially in single parent familes where they do 5 times more housework than boys (c) Ethnicity: Brannen’s (1994) study of 15-16 year olds found that Asian parents were more likely than other parents to be strict towards their daughters and Bhatti (1999) found that ideas of izzat could be a restriction, particularly on the behaviour of girls.

Answer 296

(d) Social Class: poor mothers are more likely to have low birth-weight babies which in turn is linked to delayed physical and intellectual development. Woodroffe (1993) found that children of unskilled manual workers are over 3 times more likely to suffer from hyperactivity and 4 times more likely to experience conduct disorders than the children of professionals. Howard (2001) found that children born into poor families are also more likely to die in infancy or childhood, to suffer longstanding illness, to be shorter in height, to fall behind at school and to be placed on the at risk register. Therefore, we cannot speak of ‘children’ or ‘childhood’ in general as if all children experience the same childhood, there are important variations in the experience of childhood.

Answer 297

. INEQUALITIES BETWEEN CHILDREN AND ADULTS: Firestone and Holt (1974) argue that many of the things functionalist’s see positively as for the care and protection of children are in fact new forms of oppression and control. Critics see the need to free children from adult control and their view is described as child liberationism. They argue that adult control takes a number of forms

Answer 298

(a) Neglect and abuse: Adult control over children can take extreme forms of physical neglect or physical, sexual or emotional abuse. In 2006 31,400 children were on child protection registers because they were deemed to be at risk of significant harm – most often from their own parents. Childline receive over 20,000 calls a year from children reporting sexual or physical abuse.

Answer 299

(b) Controls over children’s space: Children’s movements in industrial societies are highly regulated in stark contrast with the independence of many children in Third World countries eg they are under close surveillance and restricted from certain areas. Fears about road safety and ‘stranger danger’ have led to closer controls. For example, Hillman found that in 1971 80% of 7-8 year olds were allowed to go to school without adult supervision. By 1990, this had fallen to just 9%. Cunningham (2007) found that the ‘home habitat’ of 8 year olds has shrunk to one-ninth of the size it was 25 years ago. (c) Controls over children’s time: Adults control children’s daily routines, including the time they get up, eat, go to school, come home, go out, play, watch television and sleep. They also control the speed at which children ‘grow up’ defining whether a child is too old or too young for this or that activity, responsibility or behaviour. (d) Controls over children’s bodies: Adults exercise considerable control over children’s bodies, including how they sit, walk, run, what they wear, their hairstyles etc. It is taken for granted that children’s bodies may be touched (in certain ways by certain adults): they are washed, fed and dressed, have their heads patted and hands held, are picked up, cuddled and kissed and they may be disciplined by being smacked. (e) Control over children’s access to resources: Children have only limited opportunities to earn money and so they remain dependent economically on adults: labour laws and compulsory schooling exclude children from all but part-time, low-paid employment, child benefit is paid to the parent and not the child, pocket money is based on the parents discretion and there may be restrictions on what it can be spent on.

Answer 300

Having studied the idea that childhood is a social construct; that it developed from pre-industrial to modern society – it would be expected to continue to change in the future in response to social changes e.g. the change from modern to postmodern society

Answer 301

THE DISAPPEARANCE OF CHILDHOOD: One influential view of the future of childhood was developed by POSTMAN (1994) who argued that childhood is ‘disappearing at a dazzling speed’. He points towards the following trends to support his view: - giving children the same rights as adults - the disappearance of children’s traditional unsupervised games - growing similarity of adult and children’s clothing - similarity in adult and children’s activities (committing adult crimes, e.g. murder) In his view, the cause for both the emergence of childhood and now its disappearance, lies in the rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture.

Answer 302

In his view, the cause for both the emergence of childhood and now its disappearance, lies in the rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture. Postman argues that: (a) During the Middle Ages most people were illiterate and speech was the only skill needed for participation in the adult world. Therefore, there was no division between the world of an adult and that of a child. (b) Childhood emerged as a separate status along with mass literacy form the 19th century. This was because the printed word created an information hierarchy – a sharp division between adults who can read and children who cannot and childhood came to be associated with innocence and ignorance. (c) Television blurs the distinction between childhood and adulthood by destroying the information hierarchy. Unlike the printed word, TV does not require special skills to access it and it makes information available to adults and children alike. The boundary between adults and children is broken down, adult authority diminishes and the ignorance and innocence of childhood is replaced by knowledge and cynicism. (d) The counterpart of the disappearance of childhood is the disappearance of adulthood, where adults’ and children’s tastes and styles become indistinguishable. However, critics believe that Postman attributed too much emphasis to television as a single cause in the disappearance of childhood and ignored other influences

Answer 303

A SEPARATE CHILDHOOD: OPIE and OPIE (1993) argue that childhood is not disappearing. Based on a lifetime of research into children’s games, rhymes and songs, they argue that there is strong evidence of the continued existence of a separate children’s culture. They recognise the value of POSTMAN’s work in showing how different types of communication technology, such as print and television can influence the way in which childhood is constructed. However, they believe he over-emphasises the impact of television on childhood. Their findings also contradict Postman’s claim that children’s own unsupervised games are dying out. They believe that children can and do create their own independent culture separate from that of adults

Answer 304

CHILDHOOD IN POSTMODERNITY: JENKS (2005) also does not believe that childhood is disappearing, but recognises that it is changing. He agrees with ARIES that childhood was a creation of modern society and argues that once again it is undergoing change as society moves from modernity to postmodernity. In modern society, adults’ relationships were more stable, but in postmodern society, the pace of change speeds up and relationships become more unstable. This generates feelings of insecurity. In this context, relationships with children become more importance as a source of adults’ identity and stability. For example, while a marriage may end in divorce, you are still a parent. In postmodern society, relationships with their children thus become adults’ last refuge from the constant uncertainty and upheaval of life. As a result, adults become more fearful of their children’s security and even more preoccupied with protecting them from perceived dangers. This further strengthens the prevailing view of children as vulnerable and in need of protection that emerged with the modern notion of childhood, resulting in even greater surveillance and regulation of children’s lives. For this JENKS does not agree with POSTMAN that we are experiencing the disappearance of childhood. It continues to be a separate status and the legal and other restrictions placed on children continue to mark them off from adults.

Answer 305

THE GLOBALIZATION OF CHILDHOOD: Child liberationists believe that western childhood is oppressive and believe that far from disappearing, western notions of childhood are being globalised. They believe that western norms of what childhood should be: - a separate life stage, - based in the nuclear family and school, - in which children are innocent, dependent and vulnerable - have no economic role have been exported and imposed on the rest of the world. For example, campaigns against child labour or concerns about ‘street children’ in under-developed countries reflect western views about how childhood ‘ought’ to be. In this view, ‘childhood’ is not disappearing, but spreading throughout the world.

Answer 306

However, there is a danger of seeing children as merely passive objects who have no part in making their own childhoods. It risks seeing children from what MAYALL (2004) calls an ‘adultist’ viewpoint. This is where children are viewed as ‘socialisation projects’ for adults to mould, shape and develop. A different view is taken by the ‘new sociology of childhood’. This approach doesn’t see children as simply ‘adults in the making’, but sees children as active agents who play a major part in creating their own childhoods. For this reason as SMART (2011) states, the new approach aims to include the views and experiences of children themselves while they are living through childhood. MAYALL argues that sociology should focus on the ‘present tense of childhood’, to study ordinary everyday life from the child’s perspective. For example MASON and TIPPER (2008) note how children actively create their own definitions of who is ‘family’ and SMART’s (2001) study of divorce found that far from being passive victims, children were actively involved in trying to make the situation better for everyone. Studies like these use informal unstructured qualitative research methods, which empower children to express their own views and allow researchers to see the world from the child’s point of view. This is an approach favoured by child liberationists and it enables sociologists to explore the diverse, multiple childhoods that exist within a single society.