Families and Households Topic 1 - childhood Flashcards
Childhood as a social construct
Sociologists see childhood as socially constructed, that is that is is created and defined by society. Not fixed, instead differs between different places, times and cultures.
Western notion - ‘Golden Age’ (one theorist)
Childhood is a special time of life that is different to adulthood. Pilcher (1995) describes this as the ‘Golden Age’ of childhood:
- most important feature of modern childhood is separateness
- childhood is a clear and distinct life stage
- happiness and innocence, innocence means adults must protect children from the adult world
- excluded from paid work which emphasises that children get happiness through leisure and play
- dress is different, as are products and services such as toys, food, books, entertainment and play areas
AO3 for childhood (one theorist)
Wagg (1992) - ‘childhood is socially constructed. It is, in other words, what members of particular societies, at particular times and in particular places, says it is. There is no singular universal childhood, experienced by all. So, childhood isn’t natural and should be distinguished from mere biological immaturity’
Cross-cultural differences regarding childhood (5 theorists)
- Benedict (1934), argued non-industrial societies are generally treated differently than their western counterparts as they take more responsibility at a young age
- Punch (2001), found in rural Bolivia children worked from the age of 5
- Holmes (1974), Samoan village never used being too young as an excuse to not do something
- Firth (1970), Tikopia tribe, doing as you’re told by a grown up is regarded as a concession to be granted by the child
- Malinowski (1957), Trobriand Islanders adults took an attitude of tolerance and amusement towards children’s sexual exploitation
Globalisation of Western childhood
Sociologists argue that western views of childhood are now being globalised.
International humanitarian and welfare agencies have exported and imposed on the rest of the world, western norms of what childhood should be.
Historical differences regarding childhood (one theorist)
The position of children differs not only between societies but also over time. Childhood is a relatively recent ‘invention’
Aries (1960) investigated works of art from various periods of time and looks at three different key points in time
Middle Ages 10th - 13th century (one theorist)
- The idea of childhood didn’t exist
- Children were not seen as different to adults once they had passed the stage of physical dependency
- Worked from an early age
- The law made no distinction between children and adults, and children often faced the same severe punishments as those given to adults
- Shorter (1975), argues that high infant mortality rates mean parents did not form emotional attachments to their children which encouraged neglect. Parents often forgot how many children they had
Cult of childhood 13th century onwards (one theorist)
- Aries argues that this is when the modern view of childhood starts to emerge
- Schools start to specialise in education just for the young
- Growing distinction between children’s and adults clothing
- By the 18th century handbooks on child rearing had started to emerge - showing childcentredness
Century of the child, 20th century (one theorist)
According to Aries we are now in the world that is obsessed with childhood and he calls this the ‘century of the child’.
AO3 for Aries historical investigation (one theorist)
Pollock criticises Aries for saying that childhood did not exist in the middle ages, she simply says the notion of childhood was different.
However, Aries’ work is very valuable for showing how childhood is socially constructed
Reasons why childhood has changed: (6 reasons, one theorist)
- Laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work - children went from economic assets to liabilities
- The introduction of compulsory schooling 1880 - means that poor children have access to education, raises the leaving age
- Growth/idea of children’s rights - Un convention on the Rights of a Child 1989, lays down basic rights to healthcare and education
- Declining family sizes and lower infant mortality rates - encourage parents to make greater emotional and financial investments
- Children’s development became a subject of medical knowledge - Donzelot observes how theories of child development began to appear in 19th century
- Laws and policies that apply specifically to children - minimum age laws from sex to smoking have reinforced the idea that children are different from adults
Industrialisation
Most sociologists agree that the process of industrialisation - the shift from agriculture to factory production - has brought about many of those changes.
E.g. modern industry needs an educated workforce and so compulsory schooling is needed
Higher standards of living and better welfare have meant lower infant mortality rates
March of progress view (one theorist)
Argues that for children in western societies childhood has gradually improved over the past few centuries. De Mause (1974) -
‘ The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of childcare and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorised and sexually abused.’
Aries and Shorter’s March of Progress views (7 points)
- There are now smaller family sizes. 1860: 5.7 births per woman, 2014: 1.83 births per woman
- On average parents will have spent £227,000 by the time their child reaches 21
- Family has become more child centred, financially and emotionally invested in their children
- Children are protected from harm, laws against child labour and child abuse
- Array of services and professionals for children’s education, psychological and medical needs
- Better healthcare and living standards means lower infant mortality rates
- Media output and leisure activities specifically for children
Toxic childhood (one theorist)
Palmer (2010) argues that the UK today is experiencing a ‘toxic childhood’ with changes such as:
- Junk food which causes obesity
- Computer games and social media
- Intensive marketing to education
- Long working hours for parents
- Growing emphasis on testing in education
- Early sexual experiences, teenage pregnancies, self-harm, drug/alcohol abuse
Gender inequalities between children (two theorists)
Hillman (1993) - boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses and go out after dark
Bonke (1999) - girls do more domestic labour especially in lone parent families, 5x more likely than boys
Ethnicity inequalities between children (two theorists)
Brannen (1994) - Asian parents were more likely than other parents to be strict towards daughters
Bhatti (1999) - found izzat (family honour) could be restriction on the behaviour of girls
Social class inequalities between children
Poor mothers are more likely to have low-birth weight babies, this is linked to delayed physical and intellectual development
Working class children are more likely to suffer from hyperactivity disorders
Children born into poor families are more likely to die in infancy, suffer long standing illness, be shorter in height, fall behind in school and be placed on child protection registers
Five forms of child liberationism:
- Neglect and abuse - can lead to physical neglect or emotional abuse. 43,000 children were subject to protection plans
- Control over children’s space - children’s movements are highly regulated, told to play in certain areas but not others. 1971: 86% of children walk to school alone, 2010: 25%
- Control over children’s time - adults control daily routines, and the speed in which children grow up
- Control over children’s bodies - takes for granted that children’s bodies can be touched, also includes: hairstyles, walking, clothes, sitting
- Control over children’s access to resources - children have limited opportunity to earn money so remain dependent on adults
Age patriarchy (two theorists)
Gittins (1998) - calls the inequalities between adults and children ‘age patriarchy’. Describes the domination of children by adults. Makes the link that quite often the family is dominated by the male and he has the power over both women and children.
Humphreys & Thiara (2002) - found that 1/4 of 200 women in their study left abusive relationships because they feared for their children’s safety.
Oppressive childhood strategies (two theorists)
Hockey and James (1993) - found that children used the following strategies:
- Acting up: acting like adults by doing things they’re not meant to do e.g. smoking, drinking, swearing. Also acting older than they are
- Acting down: behaving in ways expected by younger children e.g. reverting to baby talk
AO3 of child liberationism
Critics say that some adult control is needed over children and it is justified as children cannot make rational decisions
Disappearance of childhood (one theorist)
One viewpoint by Postman (1994) about the future of childhood is that it is disappearing at a ‘dazzling’ rate. He says the boundary between childhood and adulthood is becoming increasingly blurred:
- trend towards giving children the same rights as adults
- there is a disappearance of childhood games
- growing similarity of adult and children clothing
- cases of children committing adult crimes
Information hierarchy (one theorist)
Postman (1994) - he says childhood emerged as a separate stage alongside the rise of mass literacy. Printed words create an information hierarchy; a division between those who can read (adults) and those who can’t (children).
However, TV is introduced which blurs the distinction once again between adults and children because it destroys the information hierarchy. Children no longer need special skills to access the adult world and as such innocence is diminished for children.
