Families and Households

Question 1

Functionalism

The family in society

Answer 1

• Nuclear family was the basic and central family structure
• That is 2 generations living together with biologically related children headed by a heterosexual couple living under one roof

• Women take on the expressive role (caregiving) and men take on the role of the provider
• These roles are natural

Question 2

What is a broader and more inclusive definition of the family?

The family in society

Answer 2

• A group of people related by kinship ties, relations of blood, marriage, civil partnership or adoption
• This includes 2+ people who are committed to supporting each other in some way e.g. through economic, emotional or practical support

Family can function without living together under 1 roof

Question 3

Criticisms of the Functionalist perspective

Role of the family

Answer 3

• Ignores probles that occur within families e.g. domestic violence, abuse
• Theory no longer applicable to contemporary society due to the changes in family strucucture, roles and relationships
• Feminists are critical of the assumptions about women being naturally predisposed to taking the caring housewife role

Question 4

What do the New Right suggest about the family?

The family in society

Answer 4

• Nuclear family and traditional, conservative values are important
• Men and women should take conventional roles
• Women responsible for childcare
• Men = breadwinner
• If nuclear family breaks down then children won’t be adequately socialised
• Warn agaisnt single-parent families which lack strong male role models for boys thus leading to delinquency and antisocial behaviour
• Individuals should take responsibility for their children
• Stat shouldn’t be responsible for supporting families with benefits

Question 5

Evaluate the New Right perspective

The family in society

Answer 5

• Feminists, conservative values in family are oppressive to women
• State benefits are important and necessary
• Alternatives to nuclear family are adequate for raising children, preferable and beneficial

Question 6

What is the Marxist perspective?

The family in society

Answer 6

Family is a way to maintain and reinforce a set of ideas to maintain capitalism

Question 7

What is the Marxist feminist perspective?

The family in society

Answer 7

• Women dually oppressed by patriarchy and capitalist ideology
• Both systems oppress women for benefit of men
• Families within capitalism require women to be a source of unpaid domestic work to ensure man can go to work
• Women are expected to provide outlets for all frustration and anger their husbands expereince at work and therefore prevent them from rebelling against their employers

Question 8

What is the radical feminist perspective?

The family in society

Answer 8

• Inequalities in the home are due to the way that relationships in families allow men to control women
• Inequalities in power relations relate to decision making and control of finances (both advantage men)
• Men benefit from women taking responsbility for repetitive tasks (housework, emotional work)
• Emotional work - women have to put other peoples’ feelings before their own
• Women experience subordination and oppression while they cater to the sexual, physical and emtional needs of their husband
• Major changes are needed in society to improve the position of women

Question 9

What is the intersectional perspective?

The family in society

Answer 9

• Many factors shape the experience that women have of family life
• Factors = social class, race, sexual orientation, and family structure
• Women have different experiences of family life in different types of households

Question 10

What is the liberal feminist perspective?

The family in society

Answer 10

• Equality between men and women is slowly occuring through a shift in attitudes along with legal changes
• Stress importance of women socialised and education so that they have the right and freedom to choose a career, a family role or a combination of the 2

Question 11

What is the Left wing views on the family?

The family in society

Answer 11

• Nuclear family as desirable
• Alternative family structures are acceptable and equally successfull in raising children
• The state should play a role in family life
• Support the idea that both parents may work

Question 12

What are the right wing views on the family?

The family in society

Answer 12

• Nuclear family as the ideal family
• Alternative family structures are unacceptable
• Nuclear family in decline and crisis
• Breakdown of traditional family life as the cause of societal problems e.g. crime
• State should play a limited role in family life
• Support the idea of traditional roles in the family

Question 13

The Bevridge Report (1942)

The family in society

Answer 13

• Led to development of the welfare state (set of policies which include National Insurance, NHS)
• First to make family welfare a state issue
• Effect of reducing poverty and improving health of some of the poorest and most vulnerable families in society

Question 14

Divorce Reform Act (1969)

The family in society

Answer 14

• Significant increase in divorces
• 58,239 divorces in 1970
• 119,025 divorces in 1972
• Allowed couples to divorce after they had been seperated for 2 years (or 5 if only 1 wanted a divorce)
• Divorce could occur if marriage had been irretrievably broken down
• No longer had to prove fault
• Provided greater choice in relationships

Question 15

Sex Discrimination Act (1975)

The family in society

Answer 15

• Discrimination illegal on the grounds of sex
• Made discrimination on grounds of marital status illegal
• Promoted gender equality in public and private spheres

Question 16

Equal Pay Act (1970)

The family in society

Answer 16

• Act made it illegal to discriminate against men or women on the grounds of their sex in relation pay
• Promoted message to women thatt they were legally entitled to equal pay

• In reality this was not necessarily practiced

Question 17

Rape became illegal in marriage (1991)

The family in society

Answer 17

• Attempted to make women especially feel as if the state could intervene positively in private-sphere issues such as marital rape

• Rape within marriage continues to be difficult to prove thus goes largely unpunished

Question 18

Civil Partnership Act (2004) and Marriage Act (2014)

The family in society

Answer 18

• Represented recognition of homosexual marriage as a positive alternative to heterosexual relationships
• Important shift from state labelling homosexuality as a crime
• Included recognition of homosexual parents as being suitable for raising children successfully, representing a huge shit in social attitudes

Question 19

What were Conservative (New Right) government policies?

The family in society

Answer 19

• Benefits were cut back to encourage individuals (mostly fathers) to be more responsible for their children/family.
• Single-parent benefits cut in an attempt to discourage alternative family structures
• Child support Agency was introduced to make fathers pay maintenance for their children and discourage people having children outside marriage. CSA very expensive and ineffective
• Providing married people with tax and welfare benefits, incentive to marry, discourages alternatives e.g. homosexual couples (weren’t allowed to marry at the time)
• Privatising care for elderly. Poorer families had responsibility to care for elderly relatives. Especially women further reinforcing traditional gender roles

Question 20

Evaluate Conservative government (1979-1997) poliies

The family in society

Answer 20

• Feminists, such policies counter to improving gender equality
• Policies criticised for blaiming the victim . Blaming single-parent families for societal problems such as antisocial behaviour
• Many single-parent families are headed by working parents who don’t rely on benefts as the main source of their income
• Many argue family policies developed by the New Right increase inequalities and poverty

Question 21

What are New Labour policies (1997-2010)

The family in society

Answer 21

• More generous maternity leave and pay, and paternity leave
• Free childcare for 2 and a half yr olds
• Flexible working arrangements for parents
• The New Deal (1998) helped lone parents enter into paid work after having children helping with cost of childcare, training or education
• Winter fuel payments helped elderly
• Adoption and Children Act (2002) - enables same-sex couples to adopt

Question 22

Evaluate New Labour policies

The family in society

Answer 22

• Policies have reflected the large proportion of women in ministerial positions of government and that Tony Blair had young children
• Critics such as the New Right suggested New Labour intervened too much in family life which will result in a nanny state where ndividuals rely on overly generious benefits the government gives rather than people taking responsibility for their families

Question 23

What are coalition government policies (2010-2015)?

The family in society

Answer 23

• Reintroduction of married persons’ tax allowance
• Legal Aid budget cut substantially (Legal Aid enables people on low incomes to access free legal advice)
• Child Benefit became means tested. What had been a universal benefit for all parents was cut for those above a specific threshold
• Plans to tackle children’s exposure to adult content on the internet and other media
• Universal credit designed as a way of making people earn more through working rather than benefits
• Troubled Families Programme (2011). Claim to help famillies who have problems and cause problems to the community around them putting high costs on public sector by working alongside local authorities

Question 24

Evaluate the Coalition government (2010-2015) polciies

The family in society

Answer 24

• Family polciies fail to support alternatives to nuclear family and at worst regard alterntative to nuclear family as inferior or inadequate for raising children
• Policies are not regarded as reflecting expereinces of family life for many people
• Feminists argued Coalition family policies have impacted women hardest resulting in greater hardship for women and their childrenin many cases
• Attempted to cut back benefits in general, it’s the poorest and most vulnerable groups who’ve been most negatively affected widening the gap between the rich and poor

Question 25

How do New Right see the changes? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 25

As a sign of moral decay

Question 26

What is one of the most significant trend over the past 40 years? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 26

Massive increase in divorce

Question 27

What percentage of marriages end in divorce? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 27

42%

Question 28

What is the seperation of couples? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 28

Couples who were married or in a relationship were apart from their partner

Question 29

What is empty shell marriages? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 29

Where couples live seperate lives and are married in legal terms only

Question 30

Define CLOGS and who was it based on? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 30

* Cultural diversity - a range of different family struturs, roles and relationships based on changing patterns of ethnicity * Life-stage - The fact that today with an ageing population there are a greater number of family types than there were typically in the past * Organisational diversity - People are deciding to organise their roles and relationships according to different factors * Generational diversity - There are different ideas about what is considered acceptable or desirable in family structures/roles/relationships according to age of person * Social Class - Types of roles and relationships that occur are influenced by the socio-economic position that a person has. Greater instability in lower class backgrounds ## Footnote Rapoport and rapoport (1982)

Question 31

Define household | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 31

Either one person living alone or a group of people who live at the same address and share living arrangements - bills, meals, chores etc

Question 32

Define family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 32

A group of people related by kinship ties - relations of blood, marriage, civil partnership or adoption

Question 33

Define nuclear family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 33

* A two-generation family with 2 heterosexual adults and their dependent children own or adopted * A traditional nuclear family is one in which the parents are married and the gender roles are segregated e.g. female housewife and male breadwinner

Question 34

Define extended family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 34

* 2 or more generations of family members with additions beyond the nuclear family * Horizontal means of same generations (aunties and uncles/cousins) and vertical means (grandparents) included * Kin who live in the same household or close proximity; the modified extended family are kin who are geographically dispersed but maintain regular contact via technology

Question 35

Define beanpole family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 35

Multi-generational family (3+ generations) but few people in each generaation due to increased life expectancy; grandparents play an important role in the care of grandchildren/great-grandchildren

Question 36

Define matrifocal family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 36

Female-headed families, no adult male ## Footnote African-Carribean families have a high proportion of matrifocal families (50%)

Question 37

Define patriarchal family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 37

A male-headed, male-dominated family

Question 38

Define same-sex family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 38

Families headed by lesbian or gay couples with or without children

Question 39

Define single-parent household | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 39

Families headed by one adult ## Footnote 90% headed by women

Question 40

Define Living apart together (LAT) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 40

Families or couples who don't live together, usually for work reasons

Question 41

Define cohabiting couples | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 41

Couples who live together but aren't married

Question 42

Define empty shell relationship | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 42

A couple living together but not emotionally committed to one another

Question 43

Define empty nest family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 43

A family where the children have left home and it is just the parent/s at home

Question 44

Define single/lone parent household | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 44

A person living alone through choice,divorce or bereavement

Question 45

Define reconstituted families (aka blended families) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 45

A family where one or more of the partners brings children from another relationship ## Footnote Commonly referred to as step-family

Question 46

Define symmetrical family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 46

A nuclear family with conjugal roles; husband/wife or cohabiting couples share domestic labour, childcare and leisure activitties; relationship is egalitarian (more equal)

Question 46

Define neo-conventional family | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 46

A contemporary version of the nuclear family where both parents work and share the domestic work. Parents may be cohabiting or married and the children may be biological or adopted

Question 47

According to Office for National Statistics what percentage of households in the UK in 2013 only consisted of one person? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 47

29%

Question 48

what are the reasons that lone-person households represent one of the fastest growing household types in the UK? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 48

* More women can work now, they have much greater financial independence and are able to support themselves meaning they can choose to leave alone * Increasind divorce rates mean people are often living alone between relationships * People now living longer - elderly people may outlive their spouses and live alone ## Footnote * Living alone is costly as there is no one to share costs with so increase is a reflection of increased affluence (or increase in wealth and living standards) in contemporary society

Question 49

According to the Office of National Statistics what number of opposite-sex couples were living together in 2003 and 2013? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 49

* 2003 - 2.2 million * 2013 - 2.9 million

Question 50

What number of dependent children were living in opposite-sex cohabitating couple families in 2003 and 2013? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 50

* 2003 - 1.4 million * 2013 - 1.9 million

Question 51

What are sociologists positives view on cohabitation? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 51

* Increase in cohabitation is a positive sign that couples are choosing their partner carefully and living with them before they marry * Cohabitating couples as being less constrained by typical male and female roles suggesting it might lead to greater equality between couples

Question 52

What are sociologists negative view on cohabitatiion? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 52

* New Right thinkers * Cohabitation is less stable and long term than marriage and is therefore contributing to the breakdown of traditional families

Question 53

What is the estimated percentage of homosexuals within the population? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 53

between 5% and 7%

Question 54

What number did the Government Equalities Office orignally estimate for Civil Partnerships in Britain by 2010 and what was the real number? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 54

11,000-22,000 civil partners 79,000 people at start of 2010

Question 55

Sexual Offences Act (1967) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 55

Came into force in England and Wales decriminalised homosexual acts between 2 men over 21 yrs of age and 'in private'

Question 56

Action for Lesbian Parents (1975) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 56

Founded after three high-profile custody cases where lesbians were refused custody of their children

Question 57

Male homosexuality (1980) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 57

Decriminalisaed in Scotland

Question 58

Male homosexuality (1982) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 58

Decriminalised in Northern Ireland

Question 59

Section 28 (1988) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 59

Preventing promotion of homosexuality by local authorities

Question 60

Gay male age of consent (1994) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 60

Reduced gay male age of consent to 18 ## Footnote Huge dissapointment it wasn't 16

Question 61

Age of consent homosexuals (1998) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 61

Made equal with heterosexuals

Question 62

Adoption (2002) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 62

Equal rights granted to same-sex couples applying for adoption

Question 63

Provisions in the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act (2008) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 63

Creating a new offence of incitement to homophobic hatred

Question 64

Marriage (2013) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 64

Gay marriage introduced legally

Question 65

According to the ONS what percentage did reconstituted families increase by between 2003 and 2013? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 65

39% ## Footnote 2003 = 206,000 2013 = 286,000

Question 66

# reconstituted families what percentage do multi-family households represent of all families? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 66

1%

Question 67

What did the marriage Foundation claim about first and second marriages? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 67

* 45% of first marriages end in divorce * 31% of second marriages end in failure

Question 68

What is an effect that the growth in reconstituted families is having on parenting? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 68

co-parenting ## Footnote * Where seperated parents work together as parents * Emerging as an alternative approach to raising children

Question 69

According to the Office for National Statistics how many lone parents with dependent children in the UK were there in 2013 and 2003? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 69

* 2003 - 1.8 million * 2013 - 1.9 million

Question 70

What percentage of women accounted for lone parents with dependent children according to the Office for National Statistics? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 70

92%

Question 71

What percentage of men accounted for lone parents with dependent children according to the Office for National Statistics? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 71

8%

Question 72

According to ONS who takes the main caring responsibilities for children when a relationship breaks down? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 72

Women

Question 73

What was the average age of lone parents with dependent children in UK 2011? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 73

38.1 years ## Footnote An increase of 2.3 yrs since 2001

Question 74

What's a reason for the increase of lone parents age? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 74

Could be that women have been postponing their childbearing to older ages in recent years

Question 75

What percentage of lone parents were aged 40 and over in 2011? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 75

45%

Question 76

Why is it difficult to operationalise number of single-parent families? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 76

* Difficult to define * Increasing tendency for parents to co-parent after divorce

Question 76

What are criticisms of single-parent families? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 76

New Right thinkers argue children require a mother and a father figure

Question 77

What are strengths of single-parent families | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 77

* Feminists - one happy parent is more preferable to two parents who are unhappy or dysfunctional * Harkness (2013) - Poverty has a greater negative effect on children than the structure of the family

Question 78

in 2013 how many families in the UK consisted of a married couple with or without children? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 78

12.3 million

Question 79

In 2013 how any adults in the UK aged between 20 to 34 were living with a parent(s)? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 79

3.3 million ## Footnote 25% inccrease from 1996

Question 80

What is a reason for an increase of adults living with parent(s)? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 80

* Increased cost of living * Reflects the fact the period in which children are dependent on their parents is gowing lengthening the experience of childhood

Question 81

Which gender is more likely to live with their parents? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 81

Young men ## Footnote Young women more likely to marry older people

Question 82

The Legal Aid and Advice Act (1949) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 82

* Provided financial help to those unable to meet the costs of divorce * Help women who didn't have an income or independent means * In 2013 the funding was significantly reduced by Coalition government

Question 83

The Divorce Reform Act (1969) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 83

* Came into effect 1971 * Made it possible to divorce someone because of irretreviable breakdown rather than blaming men for a particular form of unreasonable behaviour

Question 84

The Matromonial and Family Proceedings Act (1985) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 84

Reduced the time limit on divorce from a minimum of three years of marriage to one

Question 85

Lord Mackay (1995) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 85

* Introduced a white paper removing the need for fault in a marriage * But compelled couples to spend a year in mediation and encouraging them to negotiate either a reconcilliation or a mutually agreeable seperation

Question 86

The Family Law Act (1996) | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 86

Allows divorce if the marriage has irretrievably broken down after a period of reflection and consideration ## Footnote However since the divorce rate has remained high this process has clearly not had the intended effect of making people reconsider divorce

Question 87

Evaluate the key legal changes in divorce | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 87

* Changes in law is a major cause for increase in divorce * May be the case that changes in the law often reflecct changes in public opinion for example steadily rising levels of divorce in the 1960s prior to the Divorce Reform Act

Question 88

What may have caused an increase in the total number of births since 2000? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 88

Increase in foreign-born women who typically have more children ## Footnote A quater of all births in 2010 were to mothers born outside the Uk up from 13.2% in 1980

Question 89

In 2010 how old were mothers? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 89

Nearly 1/2 of all babies were born to mothers aged 30+

Question 90

Does socio-economic class impact family size? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 90

No ## Footnote Proportion of families with 3+ children is fairly evenly distributed across all socio-economic groups

Question 91

Does ethnicity impact family size? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 91

Yes ## Footnote Black and Asian ethnic groups having larger families than white and Chinese ones

Question 92

What is the functionalist view on family diversity? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 92

* Recent increase in family diversity means people have higher expectations about relationships * They're no longer willing to simply conform to what is expected by society * Diversity is therefore positive

Question 93

What is the New Right view on family diversity? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 93

* Regard it as a symptom of Broken Britain where moral decay is occuring * State should encourage greater individual responsibility and traditional nuclear family structures, roles and relationships * Traditional family values are essential for the adequate socialisation of children

Question 94

What is the Marxist view on family diversity? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 94

* Assume the family (particularly nuclear family) is arranged to support the needs of capitalism * Could be argued increase in family diversity reflects the changes in the economy * The fact that the majority of parents now both work reflects increasing cost of living in capitalistic society where the demand for consumer goods has increased * Families today aren't more affluent * They're simply exploited by the ruling class in more sophisticated ways

Question 95

What is the feminist view on family diversity? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 95

* Regard it positively * Provides women with greater oppurtuniets to seek alternatives to the nuclear family and the patriarchal ideology within it

Question 96

What is the postmodernist view on family diversity? | The changing nature of family structures

Answer 96

* Impact of the transition from modern to postmodern society leads to increasing individualism and at the same time less pressure on individuals to conform to societal expectations * Results in greater family diversity and greater instability in family structures

Question 97

How has the domestic division of labour changed? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 97

* Changes in women's work patterns haven't been matched by changes in division of household tasks between the sexes * Led to belief women experience a dual burden (paid work and housework) places unreasonable demands on their time

Question 98

Define lagged adaptation | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 98

* Gershuny * Time delay between women working full time and men taking more responsibility for domestic work

Question 99

What do feminists argue that women experience in the traditional nuclear family? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 99

* Oppression * Women take responsibility for mundane and repetitive tasks (cleaning) reinforcing their lower position in society * Part of the male-dominated set of ideas that pervade society

Question 100

Define gender scripts | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 100

Refer to the ingrained ideas about roles and relationships that come from patriarchal, heterosexual relationships, which are challenged by gay and lesbian couples

Question 101

Evaluate how the domestic division of labour has changed | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 101

* Evidence suggests heterosexual relationships continue to reflect traditional expectations about gender placing a dual burden on women (majority of whom are mainly in paid employment while still responsibile for domestic labour) * In some cases men are taking greater responsibility for domestic work and that they tyoo may feel a similar dual burden * Lesbian couples are creating new and innovative ways of managing both paid work and domestic work through recreating ideas about gender roles in their own terms avodiing traditional gender scripts

Question 102

Define relationality | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 102

* Carsten * Twinfold process whereby biologly becomes less important in defining family relationships while the importance of relationships and interactions is crucial to defining the individual

Question 103

What fraction of women experience domestic violence within their life? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 103

A quater

Question 104

How many women per week were killed by their partner? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 104

2

Question 105

Out of an estimated sample of 635,000 domestic violence incidents in UK what percentage of men were victims? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 105

20%

Question 106

# domestic violence On average how many times will a women be assaulted before she first approaches the police? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 106

35

Question 107

What percentage of domestic violence incidents are reported to the police? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 107

31%

Question 108

What do feminists argue about domestic violence? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 108

* Relationships are inherently patriarchal * Therefore domestic violence is invevitable * Society sends messages to men and women that domestic violence is acceptable and normal * Therefore it is particularly hard to challenge, prevent and control

Question 109

What is a claim functionalists have made in parenting and childbearing? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 109

Due to the fact women have children they are inevitably suited to being responsible to looking after them

Question 110

What is a social policy for domestic violence? | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 110

Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme (2014)

Question 111

Domestic Violence Disclosure Scheme (2014) | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 111

* Allow people to find out from police if their partner has a history of domestic violence * Initiative named after Claire Wood who was murdered by her ex-boyfriend 2009 * Ongoiong attempts from the government to prevent domestic violence and send messages to society that it will be prosecuted

Question 112

Evaluate changes in parenting and childbearing | Roles and relationships within the family

Answer 112

* Appears women still take responsibility for many areas of domestic life and childcare * Also appears to be a shift in attitude towards more negotiated and possibly more eglitarian relationships * Clear past patterns of behaviour often reflecting patriarchal ideology are taking time to fully change and there is a tendency for couples to follow traditionallu defined roles * Relationships are more likely to be based on high emotional expectations about love and companionship as opposed to simply practical reasons alone * Intimate relationships are complex to research as they are often considered private

Question 113

What is childhood? | Childhood

Answer 113

A social construct ## Footnote Evidence that childhood is a social construct, cross-cultural research reveals in many parts of the world children have different experiences childhood or in some cases no childhood at all

Question 114

What was the impact of industrialisation on childhood? | Childhood

Answer 114

* Childhood largely emerged due to massive social changes associated with industrial revolution (1750-1900) * Industrialisation resulted in children moving from being an economic asset where they would've contributed financially to family to becoming an economic burden meaning children are now financially dependent on their families

Question 115

What are the reasons for the emergence of childhood as we know it today? | Childhood

Answer 115

* Development of the state and social policies * Education becoming compulsory * Changing attitudes * Changing structure of family ## Footnote * Childran and women were prevented from working through laws, the family wage developed which meant father provided the income for the rest of the family * Education meant children became a concern of the state and they were unable to work thus making them dependent on adults * Education coincided with changing attitudes towards children and childhood as children became seen as vulnerable and in need of protection * Changes in family, became smaller, more geographically mobile and typically nuclear in structure. Smaller families meant that parents had the time to establish a closer relationship with their children

Question 116

What does experence of childhood depend on? | Childhood

Answer 116

* Gender * Ethnicity * Social class

Question 117

How does gender impact childhood? | Childhood

Answer 117

* Socialisation is a gendered process * Evidence suggests girls are more prepared for school than boys by age 4 * Girls are encouraged to be conformits and develop speaking skills which prepare them for education * Boys' activities tend to be physical and competitive

Question 118

How does socio-economic class impact childhood? | Childhood

Answer 118

* Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2007) states children from lower income backgrounds are very aware of their disadvanaged position from an early age * 220 children aged 5-11 who took part in group interviews in 15 schools they found that children's experience of school was negatively affected by poverty leading to poorer life chances

Question 119

How does ethnicity impact childhood? | Childhood

Answer 119

* Certain ethnic groups have higher rates of poverty e.g. among Pakistani and Bangledeshi children * Have been issues rised about the way in which some ethnic groups prepare their children for education e.g. African-Caribbean boys * Growing view that it's impossible to generalise the expereince of particular ethnic groups as expereince vary

Question 120

What is the conflict view on the experience of childhood today? | Childhood

Answer 120

* Experience of childhood is negative * Feminists claim that children are controlled by adults which is known as age patriarchy * Marxists, children are simply taught to submit to the capitalist system rather than being encouraged to question the system creatively * Capitalist society results in exploitation of children * Over 90% of children who have experienced sexual abuse were abused by someone they knew * 18,915 sexual crimes agaisnt children under 16 recorded in England and Wales 2012/13

Question 121

What is the march of progress view? | Childhood

Answer 121

* Childhood is improving as family becomes more specialised * Claim change in attitudes coupled with greater child centredness in society and social policies have resulted in safer more valued children * 75% reduction in number of children killed in roads in England and Wales either in cars or as pedestrians * UK tops the European rankings for use of filters on the internet-enabled devices that children use at home

Question 122

Social policies and changing attitudes towards children | Childhood

Answer 122

* Improved healthcare (childhood vaccinations) * Increasing role of welfare state (social workers) * Education becoming compulsory until 18 in UK * Laws specifically for children giving children rights and a legal voice (UN Convention on the Rights of the Child 1991) * Laws which controls children's behaviour (ages of consent) * Movement towards child-centred societies * Smaller familes so narroaw and deeper relationships between children and parents greater investments of adults in their children due to more children survung infancy * Greater affluence, many services specifically for children (leisure activities, children's clothing)

Question 123

Define the term childhood | Childhood

Answer 123

* The emergence of childhood is known as the child-centred society * Refers to a society in which children's needs are a priority * A collection of legal and attidunal changes have led to this new status for children

Question 124

What significant social policies directly relate to children? | Childhood

Answer 124

* 1946 - Universal child benefits introduced, reflection of how valued children are in society * 1991 - Child Support Act ensuring rights of children, children come first in divorce, enable their views to be heard and valued, parents provide support for their children * 2004 Children Act - Every Child Matters - focusing on well-being of children from birth-19 * 2007 - Department for Children established, focues on improving the quality of life of all children

Question 125

Define demography | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 125

Study of the population

Question 126

Population changes over the past century have had 2 major effects what are they? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 126

* Shift of population age composition towards the older ages * increasing dependency ratio

Question 127

Define dependency ratio | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 127

Refers to the number of dependents (0-14, 65+ yrs) to total population (15-64)

Question 128

What are consequences of the ageing population? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 128

* Greater strain on public services (healthcare system, social services) * Increasing costs of the government for public services and pensions may lead to higher taxes for working population * People live longer and work for longer (pension wage for women risen to 65) * Greater oppurunity and time to move in and out of various family structures and relationships

Question 129

In 1901 what was the Birth rate? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 129

29 per 1000 per year

Question 130

In 1901 what was the total fertility rate? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 130

3.5

Question 131

In 1901 what was the death rate? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 131

18.4 per 1000 per year

Question 132

in 1901 what was the life expectancy? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 132

45

Question 133

In 2013 what was the birth rate? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 133

12 per 1000 per year

Question 134

In 2013 what was the total fertility rate? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 134

1.94

Question 135

In 2013 what was the death rate? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 135

9.1 per 1000 per year

Question 136

In 2013 what was the life expectancy for men and women? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 136

Men - 78.7 Women - 82.6

Question 137

Discuss birth rates | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 137

* Long term decline in the number of births in the UK * Have been fluctuations in the birth rate * Increased with a baby boom after WW1 and WW2 * Overall long-term birth rate is in decline

Question 138

Discuss fertility rates | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 138

* Been below the level required to replace the population since 1973 in England * Due to the decline in the birth rate there has been a decline in the fertility rate * Women are choosing to have fewer children * Fertility rate rose slightly to 1.9 in 2009 due to patterns of immigration * Migrant families tend to have slightly larger families than non-migrants * Recent rise due to increase in older women having more babies through use of reproduction technologies e.g. IVF

Question 139

Define the natural change | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 139

Difference between numbers of births and deaths which indicates population size and growth

Question 140

What are the consequences of long-term decline in birth and fertility rates? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 140

* Changes in dependency ratio - relationship between economically productive part of society and non-workers or dependents (children/elderly). Falling number of children mean there will be less people of a working age which leads to greater numbers of dependent people * Strain on public services (hospitals) while schools may close due to a lack of children * Falling fertility rates can lead to further changes in gender roles giving more women more time for their career and maybe leading to more equality in relationships

Question 141

Discuss the death rates | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 141

* Since 1901 number of deaths in UK has been in steady decline while population has grown * Death rate has fallen * Falling death rates reflected in life expectancy * Death rates and life expectancy vary between social groups and places

Question 142

What are the causes of the declining death rate? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 142

* Decrease in infectious diseases (e.g. measles) * Medical advances (vaccines, brain scans) * Improved maternity care and establishment of NHS led to a decline in infant mortality rates * Welfare, health and environment - Gov provided better sanitation, sickness benefit and free school meals. 1944 Beveridge report and development of National Health Service led to greater government help for elderly, sick, and young as health care became free. ## Footnote AO3 * Still significant differences in death rates between various social groups suggesting economic and socil factors continue to be important in determining a person's health

Question 143

What are the consequences of the declining death rates? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 143

* Greater life expectancy * Greater dependency ratio * More pressure on elderly services/women in families to care for older relatives * Cost to the state (pensions) * Grandparents playing a greater role in their grandchildren's lives * Beanpole families increasing (multi-generational families) * Longer period of life means greater chance of divorce and remarriage * Older people who continue to be welll making a greater contribution to society * Increase in numbers of the sandwich generation (the middle-aged population who feel pressure to care for elderly parents and children/grandchildren at the same time)

Question 144

Feminist view | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 144

Changing role of women has resulted in greater control over their fertility and less social pressure to conform to traditional gender roles i.e. women having children

Question 145

Functionalist view | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 145

As each institution becomes increasingly specialised society improves thus resulting in greater life expectancy and lower death rates

Question 146

Social policy and death rates | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 146

* Development of welfare state and NHS following WW2 had a huge impact on health in UK * Death rates have declined as well as infant mortality rates * State has also developed care of the elderly and thus played a large role in longer life expectancy

Question 147

What were the reasons for an increase in immigration? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 147

* Result of WW2 where immigrants from Asia and Africa came to the UK to work and live * Result of addition of carious European countries to the EU allowing people to have the oppurtunity to travel, work and live within EU countries

Question 148

What was the composition of the UK population (2015)? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 148

* White - 86% * Mixed/Multiple ethnic groups - 2.2% * Asian/Asian British - 7.5% * Black/African/Caribbean/Black British - 3.3% * Other ethnic group - 1%

Question 149

What are the number of reasons why people choose to move in or out of an area known as? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 149

Push or pull factors

Question 150

What might push factors include? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 150

* War/conflict * Lack of jobs * Poor education * Poor health system * Political instability * Economic instability

Question 151

What might pull factors include? | Key demographic changes in the UK

Answer 151

* A good education * Good health system * Political stability * Economic stability Employment * Climate * Better standard of living

Question 152

According to 2012 report of ONS how many births to immigrant mothers were there in 2011?

Answer 152

200,000

Question 153

# ` What are the reasons for increase in divorce?

Answer 153

1. **Changes in the law** - Divorce has become equal, easier and cheaper (£550) 2. **Rising Expectations** - Fletcher argues that we place too high expectations on marriages which is why so many of them fail. In the 1950s most people had little choice over who they married, location, work and money were important factors and romance was a 'bonus' not an expectation. 3. **Declining stigma and changing attitudes** - Mitchell and Goody argue that since the 1960s there has been a declining stigma attached to divorce e.g. high profile divorces such as Charlie and Diana (media saturation) 4. **Secularisation** - Society is becoming less religious 5. **Changes in the position of women** - Women are less financially dependent on their husbands _Evaluation_ 1. £550 can still be considered expensive 2. Patronising as many people know marriages aren't perfect 3. There is still stigma around divorce 4. Religion is actually increasing globally 5. Women still aren't equal

Question 154

What are the reasons for decrease in marriage?

Answer 154

1. Most people are "trying before they buy" (living together before marriage) 2. The age of marriage is rising because people spend more time in education establishing a career 3. Fear of divorce 4. Changing attitudes to marriage. It is not seen as essential to a relationship anymore 5. Declining stigma attached to alternatives 6. Secularisation, Changing positions of women, Decline in stigma

Question 155

Why has cohabitation increased?

Answer 155

1. Decline in stigma - seen as more acceptable 2. Increased opportunities for women - they have less need for the financial security of marriage 3. Secularisation - people with no religion are more likely to cohabit than those who are religious