Facts Flashcards
1
Q
Hitler’s Rise to Power: 3 Paragraphs?
A
POINT: WSC enables Hitler to utilise his personal skills to take advantage of weak government.
Weaknesses of Government:
- ToV - Unable to destroy opposition (Munich Putsch)
- 15 govt. in less than 15 years. Hyperinflation as a result of the Ruhr Crisis
- Some sign of strength with Stresemann and Dawes and Young Plan
- Wall Street Crash
Personal Qualities and Ideology
- Lebensraum to combat Tov - Promised employment, strong leadership, end to political instability
- Blamed jews
- Defeated socialists w/ reichstag fire
- Brilliant Orator (‘A Hitler speech was superb theatre’ - EH Carr)
Mistakes of Opponents
- KPD and SPD disunity - Stalin ordered not to unite
- Communist insistence on class war limited appeal to middle class whereas Hitler did not address himself to any particular class
- Muller SPD govt. could not deal w/ depression
- Von Papen: lifted ban on SA, convinced Hindenburg to give Hitler Chancellorship
2
Q
Strengths and Weaknesses of Weimar, 1919-32
A
Point: International developments led to period of stability and strength however, the shaky foundations and unstable political constitutions meant the government was unable to survive the WSC.
Foundations of the Republic
- ToV: outrage = government named ‘November Criminals’
- Reparations = 1923 Ruhr Crisis = Hyperinflation
- Constitution not democratic enough: Article 48 (gave president emergency powers - Ebert used 136 times)
- Proportional Representation: no stability + let extremist partied in. Lots of coalitions - weakened government as none would agree.
- WEAKNESS
Golden Years
- period of stength due to Stresemann, following Ruhr Crisis
- Introduce Rentemark to stabilise economy
- Policy of Erfulungspolitik - fulfillment: work w/ allies to revise ToV
- Dawes Plan (1924): loan of 800million marks
- Young Plan (1929): extends timeline and reduces reparations
- Politics appeared more stable. 1928: 72.6% in favour of Republican parties.
- Only stable in period of international stability.
Impact of the Depression
- Reality of Dawes Plan highlighted.
- Germany on ‘borrowed prosperity’ - 1929: US withdrew German loads
- Political weakness catalysed, 4 governments in 3 years
- couldn’t solve problems - ‘Parliamentary system ceased to function’ - Paxton
3
Q
‘Totalitarianism’ in Hitler’s Germany
A
Point: Controlled many areas, inc. army, politics and some of society but still religious opposition and failure of economic policies.
Government Legislation
- Reichstag Fire (1933) - Emergency Decree (opposition suppressed and KPD banned)
- Enabling Act (1933) - w/ support of Centre Party: Hitler = rule by decree for 4 years
- Other political parties banned
- 1934: All federal govt. brought under Ministry of Interior: centralised the state
- Trade unions banned and replaced w/ German labour Front
- Press Censorship
- Totalitarian: Politics and Workers
Consolidation of Party and Gleichshaltung
- Night of Long Knives (1934) - Opposition eliminated, SA purged.
- Army swear oath of allegiance to Hitler.
- Gleichshaltung: bringing people into line.
- Creation of fear driven society, enforced by army + gestapo
- Concentration camps opened, 1933: undesirables removed.
- Anti-Semitic laws.
- Army brought under control.
- Parts of society Hitler could not control (Gypsies, homosexuals, Jews) were removed.
Education, Church, and Economy
- Cult of Personality. Propaganda (Goebbels) key in creation of totalitarian state.
- Indoctrination of youth. Race science taught. Youth groups compulsory 1936.
- Concordat with Church, 1933. Kept Church out of state affairs however govt. did not have complete control over Church.
- Weak religious opposition from Confessional Church.
- ‘Wehrwirtschaft’ - War economy. Achieve autarky and be ready for war.
- Failed. State did not have total control over economy.
4
Q
Successes and Failures of Hitler’s domestic policy
A
Point: Mixture. Successes in reduction of unemployment , indoctrination of majority of German youth, success of racial policy. Failure of economic policies and policies towards women.
Economic:
- Unclear aims.
- Adapted to support expansionist foreign policy while solving problem of rearmament and unemployment.
- 1932 6m unemployed -> 1939 0.2m unemployed through public works programmes (autobahn, Volkswagen) and conscription.
- Removed women and jews from workforce.
- Arms spending increased from 1.9bn RM 1933 -> 17.2 bn 1938
- Four Year Plan: autarky, preparation for war. Huge deficit of consumer goods and food. ‘guns before butter’.
- Success of reducing unemployment. Forced labour and removing women and undesirables from workforce calls that into question.
- Four Year Plan = failure, still dependent for consumer goods and foods.
Youth and Women (Social)
- Aim: Imposition of Nazi ideology. Volksgemeinschaft (pure Aryan race). Remove non-Nazi influences, focus on military. Build society where individual liberty is replaced w/ loyalty to Reich.
- Introduced racial purity (1935 Nuremburg Laws + 1938 Kristallnacht)
- Youth: Hitler Youth: boys = militarised, girls = domesticated. Developed strong sense of loyalty, cult of personality.
- Children spied on parents. 1939: membership compulsory. 5m members 1936.
- Changes to education: physics (angle of bomb dropping), history (power of Germany) + eugenics taught.
- Oath of loyalty from teachers. = strong indoctrination.
- Success, however some opposition (Edeilweiss pirates, quickly crushed)
- Women: Kinder, Kirche, Kuche. Women removed from workforce. Only 10% allowed state jobs -> fail, WW2 drew women into workforce.
- 1943 conscripted into workforce.
- Cross of Honours for Ger. mother to increase birthrate. 990,000 (1933) -> 1.27m (1937), short of 1920 level = fail.
Church
- Wanted to co-inhabit, knew he couldn’t eradicate them
- Concardat signed with Catholic Church, 1933: state and church would stay out of each others affairs.
- Hitler disbanded Catholic Youth Groups
- Pope Pius XI condemned Nazi treatment of Church and their racial policy
- Crucifix crisis: banned crucifix, take down religious items.
- Support of branch of Protestant Church (German Christians) but resistance from Confessional Church (weak)
- Hitler’s policy towards the Church failed, Catholic Church openly criticised Hitler however, their resistance was limited.
5
Q
Analyse the methods used to maintain power by Stalin.
A
Point: fear and elimination of opposition crucial
Terror
- ruthless
- Kirov murder -> show trials. Dealt with division in the party.
- Purge of the red army, 37,000 officers purged: purified army (problem during WW2)
- Great terror on population (NKVD): class enemies eradicated
- Historiography: Totalitarian (Conquest) and Revisionist (Getty)
- Consolidated power, opposition removed, society and party controlled.
Government Legislation
- Centralised state activity by increasing Politburo influence - increased Stalin’s control
- Banned trade unions - took power away from workers
- Socialism in economic policies: 5 Year Plans - forced industrialisation of Magnitogorsk: wages increased for those who mined most (Stakhanovite legislation)
- Peasants: forced into collectives. (Failure - production dropped and many peasants killed animals to prevent them entering the collectives) -
- Increased personal power. Socialism not a success in the countryside.
Cult of Personality and Social Changes
- Stalin seen as true leader (read Lenin’s eulogy)
- Propaganda projected Stalin as a God-like figure
- Changes in Art: portrayed Stalin and communism as the saviour of Russia
- Indoctrination of the youth
- Attach on the orthdox Church: created a new Russia
- Not fundamental: raised platform of Stalin as undisputed leader
6
Q
Stalin’s political, economic, social policies transformed Soviet Union.
A
Point: Economically transformed (huge humanitarian cost), Politically transformed (state bound through terror), Socially initially but later reactionary
Political
- Kirov Murder -> show trials
- Purge of Red Army, 37,000 officers purged (loyalty to state)
- Great Terror on population (NKVD)
- Historiography: Totalitarian (Conquest) and Revisionist (Getty)
- New reign of terror transformed Russia into a state bound by fear
Economic
- The Great Turn: Mass Industrialisation.
- Wanted to estb. self-sufficiency, increase grain supplies to feed workers.
- 5 Year Plans: centered around state controlled forced industrialisation (Gosplan).
- 1st FYP (1928-32): focussed on heavy industry. Magnitogorsk built. 25000 citizens. Effective in boosting industrial production - little improvement in consumer goods.
- 2nd FYP: heavy industrial goods - by 1937, USSR virtually self-sufficient in machine making and metal works: TRANSFORMED
- 3rd FYP: War economy. By start of WW2, Soviet economy transformed - modern industrialised state.
- Collectivisation: solve peasant problem: Grain procurement, Dekulakisation, Mass collectivisation.
- Mid 1929 - less than 5% collectivised. Feb 1939 - over half peasant households collectivised
- Collective farms did not feed cities: Great humanitarian cost, peasants didn’t have enough grain to feed themselves
Social
- Wanted equality: made improvements for women, divorce and abortion made easier.
- 1922-37 82% of 4m new workers were women.
- Outbreak of war led to retreat to typical values for women.
- 1939: medals given to women who had more than 9 children (needed to stabilise state)
- Youth: enforce Stalinism, youth groups Pioneers and Komsomol. Sent to countryside to promote socialism.
- Movement towards equality and transformation but war effort took priority.
7
Q
Stalin’s last years were his most dangerous.
A
Point: Stalin’s earlier policies more dangerous but his later paranoia made later purges more unpredictable
Terror and Purges
- Led by his paranoia
- Purges of 1930s were not repeated on same scale - NKVD remained in the forefront
- Returning Russian prisoners of war were often shot/sent to gulags: didn’t want knowledge of outside world penetrating USSR (~1/6 returning POW got home)
- New labour camps built to hold ‘bandits’ (Ukraine and Baltic nationalists).
- By 1947: more than 20m prisoners in gulags. 27 additional camps had been built.
- Similar to before. POW: shows erratic behaviour.
Political Policies
- Degree of continuation: Russification
- Jewish officials purged from higher levels of party leadership
- ‘Leningrad Affair’: purge of the Leningrad party. Leaders becoming too confident. Replaced with Stalinites.
- Party members never knew where they stood with him and feared terror and imprisonment daily. Purges became increasingly irrational.
- ‘Doctors Plot’ (1953): mostly Jewish doctors in the Kremlin were arrested and accused of killing their patients.
- Irrational and paranoid.
Army and Military
- New purge of the military, great leader Zhukov reduced to minor provincial leader
- Malenkov (in charge of USSR Missile Programme) replaced by Andrei Hanoi
- Wanted to maintain control in the military
- Was not uncommon for Stalin: whether he was more dangerous is debatable
- Fear drove his later policies
8
Q
Alexander II transformed Russian Society.
A
Point: In spite of reactionary policies, AII transformed Russian society earning nickname ‘The Tsar Liberator’. However, his aimes make the nickname questionable: directly contradicted being a ‘liberator’
Emancipation, 1861
- Serfdom, feudalistic policies mirrors slavery
- Tied to land, industrialisation couldn’t occur - holding back economic progress
- ‘It is better to begin abolishing serfdom from above than to wait for it to abolish itself from below’ - 40 million peasants freed.
- Could not be brought or sold, could take legal action, could own property/land.
- Peasants unsatisfied: redemption payments over 49 yrs. The Mir distributed the land: could issue/withhold passports for those wishing to travel distances over 20miles.
- Peasant uprisings started as they wanted more: contributed to reactionary period.
- ‘single greatest liberating measure in the whole modern history of Europe’ - GM Anderson
Legal, Governmental, Military Reforms
- 1864: introduced an independent judiciary, equality before the law, tried by jury, judges had to be educated + well paid: preventing bribes and leading to creation of intelligentsia
- ‘The court room was the one place in Russia where real freedom of speech prevailed’ - Seaton-Watson
- Army reform: needed after defeat in Crimea. Conscription for all. Reduced time serving from 25yrs to 15yrs. Barbaric punishments abolished and literacy rates increased.
- Success shown in Turkey in 1871 however ‘one eyed beating the blind’ - Molke.
- Still had a way to go.
- Multi-functional Zemstva = local council. All classes could be elected in as members. No fundamental change but a symbolic change to give people a voice.
Reactionary Phase
- Growing revolutionary opposition (assassination attempt) and peasants revolts led to reactionary phase after 1866.
- Officials dismissed, Shuvalov and Tolstoy brought in.
- Radicals and revolutionary opposition imprisoned. Many sent to Siberia.
- Courts urged to interpret law in favour of the government
- ‘the tsar liberator was a victim of unsolved conflict between social reform and the dogma of political autocracy’ - Seaton Watson
9
Q
Nature and extent of opposition to Lenin.
A
Point: most serious opposition came from Socialist Groups, in all cases terror was the most important for suppressing opposition.
Socialist Groups
- Trotsky: Chairman of Petrograd Soviets, 1917.
- Convinced Bolsheviks taking power ‘in the name of the Soviets’
- Lenin had no intention of sharing power with socialist groups
- Shown in closing down of Constituent Assembly and creating Sovnarkom (pred. Bolsheviks) - Treaty of Brest-Litovsk -> disappointing, lost 25% of industry
- Opposition big among SRs as they gained majority in CA.
- Dealt with by Cheka (Secret Police) - total power to arrest and torture. 200,000 people purged: many leaders of SRs.
- Legal system changed to ‘revolutionary justice’ - power to arrest, trial and execute in hands of Cheka.
- All political partied banned May 1918.
- Press Censorship.
- Political reforms and terror used to suppress opposition from other Socialist groups and other parties.
Whites (Civil War)
- Nature: fighting force in the Civil War (1918-21) - Included remaining SRs, those loyal to Kerensky and Tsarist loyals.
- Red Army under Trotsky’s control crushed Whites through unifying commitment to the cause and Trotsky’s leadership. (travelled 65000 miles during war)
- Whites uncoordinated, no common purpose or leader. Opposition weak, desertion high.
- While Trotsky’s Red Army was key, the Whites own weaknesses contributed more strongly to their downfall.
Political Enemies
- Bolshevik ideals of communism created class enemies
- Lenin encouraged ‘class warfare’ to eliminate enemies from society and promoted the use of the term ‘comrade’
- Anyone upholding bourgeois values -> liable to arrest.
- NEP men persecuted
- Eliminated class opposition through suppression, people would not speak up against the regime.
10
Q
WW1 as a cause of 1917 Feb Revolution.
A
Point: catalyst for the fall of tsardom. yet political + social problems that resided in Russia for decades.
WW1 as a cause
- WW1 can undoubtedly be seen as a catalyst for 1917 Feb Rev by highlighting existing problems in Rus.
- Optimist Debate: w/o WW1,, Tsardom would have survived due to social and political reforms.
- Brought new problems to Russia: already depleted resources are committed towards war - no consumer goods.
- Unregulated printing of money to fund war.
- Big military defeats in Tannaneberg and Masurea Lakes - loss of moral = rising discontent
- Conscription for foreign war w/ internal weaknesses causes unrest w/ army + loses loyalty of army.
- War highlights Tsars weaknesses: Tsar puts himself in charge of front line, held directly responsible for defeats they faced.
- Tsarina left in charge - associated w/ enemy as she is German. Appointed friends as ministers.
- Tsar rejects Duma’s proposal of Progressive Bloc: alienating Liberals.
- War increased social + political instability in Rus. at that time.
Politics
- Pessimistic perspective: one could argue that Russian Tsardom was always doomed to fail - long lasting political instability.
- Lack of reform (arising from Duma’s restricted franchise and lack of popular representation)
- Fundamental laws prevented any form of real change - alienated intelligentsia
- Stolypin’s reforms didn’t go far enough. Some argued Stolypin’s assassination in 1911 secured failure of Tsardom.
- Government repression w/ Okhrana
- Weak Tsar too obstinate
- ‘the insuperable obstacle was his dogmatic devotion to autocracy’ - Seaton-Watson
Economically and Socially
- Economic + Social problems, existed before the war, created great discontent w/ pop. of Rus. -
- Industrialisation - growing working class, poor living conditions, bad pay = strikes (Lena Goldfields, 1912)
- Agriculture not growing fast enough to support demand for food
- Growing pop.
- more land hunger. Methods used were still inefficient.
- Russification angers minorities as it was seen as suppressive. Vast amount of different nationalities, hard to contain under one supressive rule.
11
Q
Role of Lenin + Trotsky in 1917 Bolshevik Revolution and in the foundation of new Soviet State.
A
Point: Trotsky’s role more practical (Civil War + Revolution), Lenin more theoretical (ideology = April Thesis, planning and strategist)
Revolution
- Both supported staging a second revolution + its timing. In face of strong opposition from party who believed Russia needed to experience a period of democracy before implementing socialism.
- Lenin directed the October revolution from background. Made the revolution Bolshevik (April Thesis - Peace, Land, Bread)
- Trotsky was organised the revolution
- Lenin didn’t even know it was occurring.
Policies
- Both supported asserting Bolshevik control after the successful revolution, inc. dismissal of Constituent Assembly.
- Both wanted an end to Rus. participation in WW1.
- Brest-Litovsk: Lenin wanted a quick end to the war and was happy to sign, Trotsky however wanted to negotiate having Russia demobilise but mot conclude a peace settlement. Trotsky eventually supported Lenin.
- Both supported the idea of conscription for labour duties for those not fighting in the army.
- Lenin was the party leader and driving foce in obtaining Bolshevik control of the CA and of Russia.
- Lenin ordered Trotsky to negotiate peace w/ Germany even though trotsky disagreed with terms.
- Lenin introduced NEP, Trotsky opposed it.
- Trotsky had little say in political policies
Civil War
- Both contributed to success of Reds in Civil War.
- Lenin appointed Trotsky Commissar for War.
- Lenin proposed War Communism and other measures but did not take part in fighting.
- Trotsky built up Red Army, directed opposition, and savagely and successfully crushed the opposition. Active role in the Civil War.
12
Q
Causes of 1917 Revolution
A
Point: Failure of PG to solve old problems was only highlighted by the Bolsheviks support and the problems that arose through WW2.
Failure of govt. to solve old problems
- Govt. failed to solve problems and unrest left by Tsar
- Fundamental weakness to achieve anything due to their temporary nature
- ‘Dual Power’ and Soviet Order no. 1 (orders of state duma to be obeyed only if they don’t contradict with Soviet decrees and orders) = no legitimate authority.
- Didn’t touch on issues of war and land left from Feb. Revolution
- Kept fighting war = resource deficiency just got worse
- Land commission did too little to distribute agricultural land to peasants
- Allowed freedom of speech
- ‘The Bolsheviks did not seize power, they picked it up’ - Andy Ulam
Bolshevik Strengths
- April Theses
- Simple slogans of ‘Peace, Land, and Bread’
- Made the revolution Bolshevik
- took advantage of freedom of speech
Threats to PG Power
- July Days: Uprising of workers and soldiers. Failed because of lack of leadership.
- Kornilov Affair: Kornilov gathered troops together and marched on Petrograd. Kerensky called on Bolsheviks to help defend Petrograd.
- Gave Bolsheviks validity.
- WW1: Failure of government to leave the war.
13
Q
Reasons for success of the Bolsheviks in Oct. Revolution.
A
Point: Bolshevik’s ideology and Lenin’s personal qualities aided, ultimately weaknesses of PG.
Weakness of PG
- Did not handle Russia’s problems handed over from Tsar making it easy for the Bolsheviks to take power
- Cont. with war effort, against public desire.
- Addressed inflation by punishment brigades requisitioning grain from peasants. Land reform postphoned.
- Working conditions appalling.
- Nature of govt. only a temporary body - not prepared to make long term decisions.
- freedom of speech allowed opposition to mount (inc. Bolshevik promotion)
- ‘The Bolsheviks did not seize power, they picked it up’ - Andy Ulam
Strengths of the Bolsheviks and Ideology
- Lenin’s ideology accessible to the masses
- April Thesis: promised the people what they wanted. Made the revolution Bolshevik.
- Simple slogans accessible to the messes ‘All Power to the Soviets’ and ‘Peace, Land, and Bread’
- Timing of the Revolution (before Constituent Assembly formed)
- Role of Trotsky: Chairman of Soviet, led Red Guard to Winter Palace, executed Revolution. Captured Winter Palace in a day.
Events of 1917
- April Thesis: Opposition to the PG made people hostile, wanted further revolution
- June Offensive: disaster for PG
- July Days: 500,000 rebel in Kronstadt.
- Kornilov affair: gave Bolsheviks arms and status - Errors made by rivals
14
Q
Methods used by Bolsheviks to consolidate their power.
A
Point: Terror and propaganda however, use of government legislation = important
Satisfying Demands
- Made promises to workers and peasants. Needed to solve problems of Tsar and PG
- Created Sovnarkom: Bolshevik council to rule and make decrees (All power not given to Soviets)
- Workers given 8 hour day and granted control of factories to committees of workers (satisfied workers - abolished during war communism)
- Abolished private ownership of land and legalised the peasants land seizures - fulfilled promise of ‘Land’
- Banks, railways and land all nationalised
- ‘Treaty of Brest-Litovsk’ fulfilled promise of peace. Harsh terms led to increased opposition -cost them 25% of industry.
Dealing with opposition
- From Kadets and other Socialist groups
- Creation of Cheka: unlimited power to arrest + torture. Aimed to eliminate opposition. Arrested leaders of opposition.
- Encouragement of class warfare: ‘bourgeois’ values liable to arrest.
- Press censorship: not making mistake of PG and allowing freedom of speech
- Allowed CA to form (meeting pop. expectations). SRs won
- Lenin shut down CA and prevented it from meeting again = force - Extremely effective.
Armed Forces and Propaganda
- Set up Red Army in Jan 1918. Jan 1920 had 0.5 m members.
- Crucial in eliminating opposition and upholding regime.
- Also crucial in Civil War
- Propaganda key to create Lenin’s Cult of Personality
- Civil War neutralised opposition. Won Civil War. Trotsky’s military leadership.
- Lenin as orator. Unified side.
- Lit, theater, radio, and newspapers emphasise glory of revolution.
- Winning Civil War was the last stage in neutralising opposition.
15
Q
Causes and Consequences of 1905 Russian Revolution.
A
Point: Discontent and opposition led to Jan revolution. Opposition was subdued, Russia was not on its way to peaceful democracy.
Causes
- Lack of political reform: repression of 2 reactionary Tsars increased opposition.
- Great Spurt left dreadful working conditions as a result of rapid urbanisation. Frustration of workers.
- Famine and redemption payments: disillusionment among peasants
- Short term: discontent with NII - enhanced by result of Russo Japanese War. Naval Mutiny, May 1905 and Russian Baltic fleet destroyed
- Bloody Sunday 22 Jan 1905. Asking for an 8 hour workin day and better working conditions. Peaceful Protest turned into disaster.
- Over 100 dead or wounded.
- Tsars failure to reform and his neglect of the needs of the people led to the outbreak of revolution.
Immediate Consequences (Optimistic)
- Consequences support Optimistic notion that Tsardom could have survived.
- Oct. Manifesto published bringing an end to the conflict. (Gives freedom of conscience, speech, meeting, and association) - wins back middle class
- Absolute monarchy become constitutional - a radical change for Rus. No law can be passed w/o State Duma’s approval. Duma’s franchise made larger.
- Opposition subdued. Redemption payments cancelled in 1907 - peasants more satisfied.
- Army brought back on side as officer classes can now enforce the law.
- Stolypin aided peasants by estb. a Land Bank to help them buy land and leave Mir.
- Reforms in education and health show Rus. is on its way to a viable democracy, seen statistically by number of primary schools doubling.
- Tsardom looked like it might survive.
Consequences (Pessimistic)
- Pessimistic view Tsardom was doomed to fail and 1905 revolution was the beginning of the end.
- Initial consequences showed inability of Tsardom to make effective changes
- Trotsky exemplified this ‘ a constitution has been given but autocracy remains’
- Fundamental Law of Empire, 1906. Laws agreed by the Tsar, the Tsar could dissolve Duma and Tsar kept control of foreign policy. Tsar gave some freedom but tightened control elsewhere.
- Redemption payments removed too late - Duma’s loyal to the Tsar and were completely unsuccessful
- Growing discontent - 1917 revolution
