deck_3644924 Flashcards
Imperialism as a cause of WW1
‘Weitpolitik’: Germany wanted influence in Africa but 90% of Africa already colonised - increased tensions.
Moroccan Crises 1906 and 1911: international crises centring on France’s attempts to control Morocco and on Germany’s concurrent attempts to stem French power - increased tensions.
Served to increase tensions between GB, Fr. and Germany (strong colonial powers)
Militarism as a cause of WW1
Anglo-German Naval Race: GB launch of the dreadnaught in 1906 made all other ships obselete.
Arms Race: arms spending increased drastically
Since 1870 all European powers had adopted Conscription Policies except GB.
War Plans (Schliefflen Plan)
Not essential, more of a product of other factors but still served to increase tensions.
Alliances as a Cause of WW1
As tensions arose through imperialism and militarism, European countries sought security in treaties.
Ger: Triple Alliance between G, I, AH. - isolate Fr. and prevent war on two fronts.
Triple Entente: reaction, linked GB, Fr. and Rus.: created split of two blocs in Europe.
London Treaty of 1839: used as GB’s excuse for entering war to protect Belgium
Alliances were instrumental in creating war, not because they dragged countries into the war (Fr. didn’t join right away and It. changed sides) but because they cast a facade of safety over Europe that allowed tensions to grow to the point of war.
Nationalism as a cause of WW1
Nationalism in the form of the creation of the Nation State
Pan-Slavism: freedom of Slavs from Ottoman Empire (supported by Russia)
Bosnian Crisis 1908-9: AH annexed Bosnia and Herzegovnia. (Heiss described as a dress rehearsal for WW1, all the big powers were involved)
First and Second Balkan War: First Balkan War - Serbia gained land and access to sea (powerful); second Balkan war she lost it.
Serbian Nationalism: Blackhand Gang assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Trigger of WW1
Assasination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand ‘50 years were spent in the process of making Europe explosive. 5 days were enough to detonate it’
AH ultimatum to Serbia; harsh.
Ger. gives AH blank cheque to support them in war.
Russia mobilises
‘honour and self-interest, meant that, fatally no Great Power could back down’ - Bridges
Crisis gave all nations as excuse for war.
ALL COUNTRIES TO BLAME
Weakness of Weimar govt. in facilitating Hitler’s RTP
Middle class favoured autocratic rule. Constituion of Article 49 and Proportional Representation
ToV tainted Weimar.
Unable to destroy oppostion, uprisings e.g Munich Putsch, 1923 and Spartacist Uprising (both sides)
15 govt. in less than 15 years.
Economic instability in the Ruhr. 200DM for one loaf of bread - instability and evidence of failure.
Success in Stresemann and Erfullungspolitik (Fulfilment) but WSC highlights instability of regime.
1932: 6m unemployed, failure of Dawes and Young Plan, still had reparation costs…forced German pop. into desperation. Hitler promised them Stability.
Carr: were it not for 1929 it is ‘inconceivable that Hitler would have come to power’
Personal Qualities and Ideology in facilitating Hitler’s Rise toPower
Lebensraum (Space to expand): combat ToV, revision of the clauses.
Promised employment for everybody.
Promised strong incorrupt leadership, political instability will end, security will be reinstated
Found scapegoat for wrongdoings in Jews, Removed any previous blame
Brilliant orator ‘A Hitler speech was superb theatre’ - EH Carr
Mistakes of Opponents in Facilitating Hitler’s RTP
KPD and SPD disunite. Stalin ordered not to unite
Communists insistence on a class war ‘limited appeal’ especially with strong middle class whilst Hitler ‘did not address himself to any particular class’ - Bullock
Muller SPD govt. could not deal with depression
Von Papen convinced Hindenburg to give Hitler the Chancellorship as they thought he would be content with that.
‘The Hindenburg clique thought they could install him in power and control him’ - Gordon
Hitler’s Economic Policies
Unclear aims. Economy needed to support expansionist foreign policy and retain popularity. Needed to solve unemployemnt.
1932 6m unemployed - 1939 0.2m unemployed: Public Works programmes (autobahn, Volkswagen) and conscription - removed women and jews from the workforce.
Arms spending: 1.9bn RM 1933 - 17.2bn RM 1939
Four Year Plan: autarky, huge trade deficit with raw materials and food. Focus on militarism: ‘guns before butter’
Result: Success of reducing unemployment however, forced labour and removing from the workforce calls in to question success. Four Year Plan = failure, still dependent on fuel and raw materials. 19% food imported in 1939.
Hitler’s Policy on Race
Volksgemeinschaft (pure Aryan race)
Remove non-Nazi influences
Successfully introduced Racial Purity (1935 Nuremburg Laws and 1938 Kristallnacht)
Jews made to live in ghettos later sent to concentration camps along with other enemies of the regime (gypsies, etc.) Effectively removed from society.
Hitler’s Policy on Youth
The Hitler Youth Movement: many children joined, given same status as school. Boys = militarised. Girls = domesitcated.
Had to take oath of loyalty to Hitler.
500,000 (1933) -> 5m members 1936
1939 membership was made compulsory.
Changes to education: PE was compulsory, took eugenics, Oath of Loyalty from teachers. By 1937, 97% of teachers were a part of Teacher’s League.
Poor quality students produced: dependent on Nazism and not forward thinking.
Hitler’s Policy on Women
1934 Speech: prioritise Kinder, Kirche, Kuche
Women removed from the social service and only 10% allowed state jobs. Failure: more women in jobs in 1939 than in 1933 (due to war)
Cross of honours for Ger. mothers to increase birth-rate. 1933 birthrate: 990,000. 1937 birthrate: 1.27m but well short of 1920 level of 1.6m = fail
1943: women conscripted back into the workplace.
Hitler’s Policy on Church
Protestant Church = divided. Confessional Church and Reich Church. Confessional Church provided weak opposition that was crushed easily. Only spoke out against State involving itself in Church affairs.
Signed a Concordat with Catholic Church in 1933: stay out of each others business.
The Nazis started to close Catholic churches. Many monasteries were shut down and the Catholic Youth Organisation was abolished.
Pope Pius XI condemns Nazi treatment of Church. Bishop Gallen of Munster condemns euthanasia.
WW1 as a cause for the 1917 Feb Revolution
Highlighted existing problems in Russia: increased social and political instability.
Optimist debate: tsardom would have survived without WW1: ‘no longer endowed with dangerous tensions’ - Timasheff
Brought new problems to Russia: depleted resources are committed towards the war, no consumer goods (discontent), unregulated printing of money to fund war - hyperinflation
Big military defeats in Tanneneberg and Masurea Lakes - lack of moral on home front
Conscription for foreign war with internal weaknesses causes unrest with army and conscripts. Tsar loses support of army.
War highlight’s Tsar’s weakness. Put himself in charge on the front line - held directly responsible for any defeats they faced. Tsarina was left in charge rather than accept Duma’s suggestion of a Progressive Bloc - alienated the liberals.
Political Instability as a cause of 1917 Feb Revolution
Pessmistic Perspective: Tsardom was always doomed to fail, notably due to long-lasting political instability.
Lack of reform: Duma and restricted franchise and lack of popular representation brought discontent to Russia.
Fundamental laws prevented any form of real change - alientated intelligentsia
Stolypin’s reforms didn’t go far enough. Some have argued Stolypin’s assassination in 1911 secured the failure of the Tsardom.
Government repression w/ Okhrana
‘Imperial Russia simply rotted away from the centre outward until its shell fell in’ - Crankshaw
Economic and Social Causes of 1917 Feb Revolution
Existed before the war - created great discontent.
Industrialisation: growing working class, poor working wonditions, bad pay = strikes such as Lena Goldfields, 1912)
Agriculture not growing fast enough to support demand for food
Land huger: farming methods = inefficient
Russification still angers minorities as it was seen as suppressive. Hard to keep vast amount of different nationalities under one supressive rule.
Political Causes of Spanish Civil War
Inability of the previous regime to easee the transition into a modern democratic government following the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
Large divide between right (traditional) and left (working class/reform/replace)
Azanas Government (left-wing) (1931) army democratised, separation of church from state, church property nationalised, church teachers and schools removed: further exacerbated social differences (anti-clerical). Gave Catalan a degree of autonomy. Many army officers were made to retire early. Huge estates nationalised. Opposition from the right and also from the left (reforms not going fast enough)
Right wing governement (1933): Ceda, right-wing chruch group. Overturned all the left-wing govt. had done: upset in Catalonian and Basque regions. 1934:
Left-wing parties formed Popular Front: (1936). Election was 48% in favour of Popular Front, 46% for right-wing. Right-wing started searching for military insurrection - coup d’etat.
Social Causes of Spanish Civil War
- Spain on low: loss of empire
- church mobilised everyone to vote against republicans – Church resented by many. especially in urban areas
- large gap between aristocracy and peasants
- Most peasants lived in poverty: inspired by Bolshevism to rise against Monarchy.
- Second Republic could not solve social problems
- Social Divide manifested itself in political divide.
Economic Causes of Spanish Civil War
- Extreme poverty amongst peasantry – Origins of war lay in deep-routed class conflicts, hunger for land= desire for change.
- ‘latifundia’ – rich ‘braciaros’ – poor
- Basque and Catalonia = economically superior, wanted autonomy
- loss of empire in 1898 = loss of protected markets, suffered from WWI (even though neutral)
- No eco. development + modernisations: exacerbated by 1929 crisis; -75% in exports from 1930-1934 = developed DESPERATION
Political unity and leadership as a reason for Nationalist Victory in SCW
- Republican weakness: not a unified force. Made up of diverse groups – communists, socialists, left-wing republicans, anarchists, POUM – whose aims differed. Communists and socialists believed revolution should be postponed until the war was won whereas the anarchists argued war could only be won through revolutionary policies.
- Exemplified in 4 day street fighting in Barcelona in May 1937.
- ‘the Spanish Civil War was not one but many wars’ – Preston
- Nationalists managed to combine many parties under Franco’s successful leadership. Falange, Carlists, CEDA, Alfonsists, right-wing republicans were all part of the Nationalist brigade.
- Franco unified the Falange and the Carlists under his sole command to create the FET.
- Conclude: in terms of political unity, the republicans disunity allowed Franco’s unified force to take advantage of the weakness of their opposition. It was more Rep. weakness.
Economic Factors as a reason for Nat. Victory in SCW
- Thesis. In terms of economically, the Nationalists had a far superior economic situation implying it was their strengths that impacted the outcome of the war.
- Rep weaknesses: lost gold reserves paying for Stalin’s international aid. Communist collectives failed to provide. Inflation was at 300% yet wages had only gone up 15%. Effect on non-intervention: GB and F prevented the Republicans from trading.
- On the other hand, Nat controlled key industrial and grain growing areas by 1937. Support of big business community.
- Conclude: Nationalist’s strong economic position allowed them to win the support of the people who the Republicans had irritated.
Foreign Intervention as a reason for Nat. victory in SCW
- Republicans foreign aid was of a lesser quality than that of the Nationalists, both in quantity and timing.
- Rep: USSR but only until 1937 and at a price. Not integrated into Rep army. Sent no troops only aircraft, tanks and advisors. Poor quality of aid that was withdrawn before the war was over.
- Non-interventionist of GB and F.
- International Brigades (35,000) . Significant in defence of Madrid but other than that impact was limited. Left in 1938.
- However, Nat had the support of Germany, Italy, and Portugal. Consistent and effective support, unified under Franco. Gave nationalists control of the air. Support of international business community.
- Civil War would not have happened w/o German army airlifting Franco’s army from Morocco to Spain
Mussolini Foreign Policy: Making his Mark
- Revenge: prove the new power of Italy.
- Corfu incident 1923. Invaded Corfu following the death of Italian soldiers on the border. Ordered to retreat by LoN and received compensation from Greece = success.
- Regaining Fiume, 1924. Italian land controlled by Yugoslavia. Pleased Italian people. Was consistent with Musso’s original foreign policy aims.
- Period of consistency, his aims were clear and his success was demonstrated through Fiume.
Mussolini Foreign Policy: International Statesmen
- Later 1920s
- Consistent with aim of making Italy respected.
- Locarno treaty (Germany’s Western Borders) co-guarantor with Britain 1925
- Kellogg-Briand Pact 1929: outlawing war in Europe. While consistent with making Italy respected, did not fulfil the fascist lust for war.
- Creation of Stresa Front with GB and F against Italy. Success at boosting international prestige and power in International diplomacy. Most successful policy of making Italy respected.
- Defended Austria by sending troops to the Brenner Pass to warn Hitler not to invade. Hitler’s retreat highlights that Hitler at this time feared the Italian army.
Mussolini Foreign Policy: Aggressor
- Musso’s descent into aggression would cause his stable and consistent foreign policy to collapse
- Following WSC, tactics had to change to distract Italian people from domestic crisis. Unemployment = unrest.
- Invasion of Abyssina, 1935/36: lost respect of GB and Fr = collapse of Stresa Front.
- Invasion was a success but weakened Italy, so in hindsight the success has to be questioned.
- Intervention in SCW: gave more aid than any other country.
- Significantly weakened Italy: become apparent with outbreak of WW2.
- Extremely expensive with little economic benefit.
- Forms a friendship with Hitler.
- Distracted from domestic policies but again inconsistent.
Mussolini Foreign Policy: Disaster. Lead up to WW2 and WW2.
- Highlights failure of Musso’s foreign policy
- Friendship with Hitler ( Rome-Berlin Axix, 1936, and Anti-Comintern Pact, 1937)
- Left isolated in Europe with Hitler as his only Ally.
- Allowed Hitler to invade Austria (shows how he has developed since he stopped him in the 1920s)
- Mussolini unable to enter WW2 as his troops being present in Spain and Abyssinia = embarrassing.
- FAILURE.
Mussolini’s Economic Policies
- Main aim: autarky, wanted to be self-sufficient in time for war. Show greatness of Italian economy to other regimes.
- Set out three battles: battle for Grain, Lira and Land. Wanted a ‘strong currency for a strong country’. Economy deflated to drive up the value of the Lira – harmed exports. 1936, force to devalue: failure.
- Battle for Grain: ‘free Italy from the slavery of foreign bread’. Placed high tariffs on grain imports. Success as grain imports fell 75% 1925-35 but overall damages agriculture and failed to solve rural poverty of south. Cost of bread increased.
- Battle for Land: aimed to increase land for grain and jobs. Reclaimed ¾ of the land in North and provided jobs. South neglected. Only benefitted some Italians.
- Corporate State: third way between capitalism and communism. ‘Corporate revolution’ to stop labour disputes. Success: by 1934, 22 corporations set up, but dominated by fascists, corrupt suppressed.
Mussolini’s Social Policies
- Women: ‘in our state she does not count’ Traditional view, should be at home raising sons for army.
- 1927: women taken out of ‘unnatural professions’
- Failed to an extent as their exclusion from work raised the amount of women in higher education from 6% in 1914, to 15% in 1938.
- ‘Battle for Births’ – aimed to increase population by 50-60% by 195o. Prizes given to women with large families and abortion made difficult (supported by Catholic Church)
- Birth-rate actually declined until 1936. Marriage rate fell.
- Youth: wanted loyal fascist generation to secure future of the regime. 1930’s – one standardised textbook – Cult of Duce
- Unclear on success, Church still had influence.
Mussolini’s Religious Policies
- Catholic Church dominated Italian society. Most Italians devoted Catholics. Pope not recognised Kingdom of Italy since unification in 1870.
- Musso needed Church to give his government credibility.
- Lateran Treaties of 1929. Ended conflict. Church gained compensation for unification and Pope given Vatican city. Musso earned recognition as Italian leader.
- ‘the pacts were a triumph’ – Clark
- Success: boosted Italian prestige for Catholics worldwide, Church endorsed Musso in elections. BUT relationship deteriorated over youth groups and anti-Semitic laws 1938.
Alexander III’s Political Policies
- Immediate dismissal of Loris-Melikov reforms (which aimed to implement constitutional reform and assembly)
- 1881 ‘Manifesto on Unshakeable Autocracy’: proving his reactionary political rule
- 1881 Statute for measures protecting State security – increased influence of Okhrana (secret police) in imprisoning opposition
- Laws passed in 1890 and 1892 restricting the size of the voting franchise, returning power to those who supported the tsardom
- Limiting education in higher classes in 1894 University Statute and 1887 decree stopping peasants attending school – by 1897 only 21% of the population are literate
- Russification: persecution of national minorities
- Undoubtedly a political reactionary who was determined to return power to autocracy
Alexander IIIs Economic Policies
- Initiated by Sergei Witte: finance minister 1892-1903
- ‘The Great Spurt’ aimed to industrialise Russia in order to retain ‘Great Power Status’
- Advocated a policy of state capitalism where state would fund, direct and plan industry. Experts hired from abroad
- Needed money to fund, notably imposed heavy taxes and high interest rates; limited imports; extensive loans from France; rouble put on the Gold standards. Put Russia into a lot of debt.
- Industrialisation improved production, with coal production doubling between 1881-1894. Trans-Siberian railway: modernises Russia as it encourages internal migration. Working conditions were awful.
- The growth of the industrial sector in the 1890s was 126%, following on from reforms implemented by AIII
- Peasants land bank helped peasants but land following the financial crisis of their emancipation = successful. Agriculture was not fully reformed = famine when harvest failed.
- Shows clear statistical signs of modernising Russia’s economy in order to remain a great power.
Causes of 1905 Revolution
- Lack of political reform. Repression of the two reactionary Tsars increased opposition. Creation of the RSDP in 1898 who split in 1903.
- The Great Spurt left dreadful working conditions as a result of rapid urbanisation. Frustration of the workers was not subdued.
- Famine and redemption payments: disillusionment among peasants.
- Short term: discontent with Nicholas – enhanced by result of the Russo Japanese war. Naval mutiny May 1905 and the Russian Baltic fleet destroyed.
- Bloody Sunday 22 Jan 1905. Peaceful Protest turned into disaster. Over 100 dead or wounded
- Tsars failure to reform and his neglect of the needs of the people led to the outbreak of revolution.
Consequences of 1905 Revolution: Reform (Optimist)
- One could argue that the consequences of the October revolution supports the optimistic notion that Tsardom could have survived.
- October Manifesto is published to bring an end to the conflict (gives freedom of conscience, speech, meeting, and association) – wins the middle classes back to the side of the Tsar.
- Absolute monarchy became constitutional – a radical change for Russia, no law can be passed without the State Duma’s approval. Duma’s franchise was made larger.
- Opposition subdued. Redemption payments cancelled in 1907 – peasants satisfied.
- Army brought back on side as officer classes can now enforce the law.
- Stolypin aided peasants by establishing a Land Bank to help them but land and also made it easier for them to leave the Mir, although these reforms were disrupted by the outbreak of WW1 in 1914.
- Reforms in education and health show Russia is on its way to a viable democracy, seen statistically by the number of primary schools doubling.
- From the historical view point of optimism, the Tsardom looked like might survive as a result of these forms.
