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Biology > F214 > Flashcards

F214 Flashcards

1
Q

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H20 is the equation for aerobic respiration - why is this an over simplification?

A

Because ATP is also made by oxidative phosphorylation
Enzymes such as Rubisco and coenzymes such as NAD are used
Glucose is not the only substrate

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2
Q

Explain how type 1 diabetes is caused

A

B cells in the islets of langerhans don’t function properly, stops producing or produces Ineffectively the insulin needed to turn glucose into glycogen for storage so there is a build up of glucose in the blood
Can be hereditary
Can be triggered by a virus or other environmental factor

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3
Q

Factors increasing a persons risk of developing type 2 diabetes

A 
Increases with age 
Hereditary/ genetic 
More common in males
More common in Afro/caribbeans 
Obesity/overweight/ fat around abdomen 
High/ frequent intake of sugar 
Lack of physical activity
High blood pressure 
Excessive alcohol intake
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4
Q

Describe the fate of Pyruvate in anaerobic respiration in muscles cells

A

Pyruvate is converted into lactate
Pyruvate accepts hydrogen atoms from reduced NAD and is catalysed by lactate dehydrogenase there is no oxygen to act as final acceptor so link reaction/ krebs can’t take place
Limited amount of ATP is made

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5
Q

Suggest how a seal is adapted to respire for a long time under water

A

Haemoglobin has a higher affinity to oxygen - more oxygen in blood for respiration
Large nostrils to take in air
Keep nostrils closed under water to prevent air from escaping
Lungs have High vital capacity
Has low respiratory rate
Has lots of haemoglobin

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6
Q

Describe a Schwann cell

A

Schwann cell wraps around axon of neurone, produces myelin and causes electrical insulation which speeds up transmission of action potentials as only Saltatory conduction can occur at nodes of ranvier

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7
Q

Describe the relationship between myelinated axons and speed of conduction

A

Myelination produces greater speed of conduction, unmyelinated needs larger axon to produce same speed

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8
Q

Describe the relationship between axon diameter and speed of conduction

A

The wider the axon the quicker the speed of conduction

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9
Q

Suggest why the increase in temperature results in an increase of speed of conduction

A

Increased kinetic energy so ; ions diffuses into axon quicker, faster movement of vesicles containing neurotransmitters at synapses neurotransmitter is broken down more quickly

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10
Q

Outline the events following the arrival of an action potential at a synaptic cleft

A

Action potential arrives, causing polarity to increase which causes Na+ channels to open and for Na+ to diffuse into the cell. This increases positivity more and stimulates Ca2+ channels to open. The presence of Ca2+ causes vesicles containing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to fuse to the membrane and release the neurotransmitter by exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine diffuses across synapse ad fuses to complementary receptors on the post synoptic membrane which causes Na+ channels to open ECT. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks acetylcholine down into choline and acetyl co A

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11
Q

Name the process by which fluid passes from the glomerulus into the renal tubule

A

Ultra- filtration

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12
Q

Name the tissues that line the proximal convoluted tubule

A

Cuboidal epithelium cells

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13
Q

Name the pigment at the reaction centre of photo system 1 and 2

A

Chlorophyll A

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14
Q

Name the three parts of an ATP molecule

A

Adenine, ribose, phosphate (x3)

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15
Q

Explain the role of ATP in the cell

A

Universal energy molecule
Phosphates can be released by hydrolysis, releasing 30kj of energy
Energy released for metabolic reactions ie glycolysis in respiration

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16
Q

Describe the way in which an endothermic animal, such as a mammal, normally prevents its body temperature from decreasing when the external temperature decreases

A

Thermoreceptors are stimulated and impulses are sent to the hypothalamus
Increased metabolic rate
Vasoconstriction - less blood running near surface of skin so less heat lost by conduction
Shivering to generate heat
Erector muscles contract to raise hairs which trap warm air
Release of adrenaline

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17
Q

Name the process which turns amino acids into ammonia

A

Deamination

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18
Q

A pregnancy testing kit contains a testing ‘stick’ to detect a hormone in the urine. Explain how the stick detects this pregnancy hormone.

A

1 (testing for) human chorionic gonadotrophin / hCG ;
2 hormone small so can pass from blood into filtrate
3 immobilised ,antibodies on stick ;
4 antibodies attached to , marker / dye ;
5 hormone , binds / complementary , to antibody ;
6 (triggers) appearance of colour / line becomes visible

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19
Q

Name the products of the light dependant reaction that are used in the Calvin cycle

A

ATP

Reduced NADP

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20
Q

Discuss the fate of triosephosphate in the Calvin cycle

A

Used to make other carbohydrates eg cellulose

Regenerates RuBP so that cycle can continue

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21
Q

Comparison of glycogen and glucagon

  • type of compound
  • role of compound
  • site of production
A 
Type of compound;
- Glycogen; carbohydrate
- glucagon; hormone 
Role of compound;
- Glycogen; storage of glucose 
- Glucagon; breakdown of glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis)
Site of production;
- Glycogen; liver 
- Glucagon; alpha cells in he islets of langerhans in the pancreas
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22
Q

Suggest why MS is described as an auto-immune condition

A

Attacked by the body’s own immune system

Immune system treats body cells as foreign

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23
Q

Compare anaerobic respiration in mammals and yeast

  • hydrogen acceptor after glycolysis
  • is co2 produced?
  • name of final product
A 
H acceptor after glycolysis;
Animal - Pyruvate 
Yeast - ethanal 
Co2 produced? 
A - no 
Y - yes 
Final product;
A - lactate 
Y - ethanol
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24
Q

Suggest one benefit of anaerobic respiration to a mammal

A

Allows glycolysis to continue and ATP to be released

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25
Q

A feature of synapses is that they allow transmission in only one direction. State how this is achieved

A

Only presynaptic neurone releases neurotransmitter (acetylcholine)
Only post synaptic membrane have receptors

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26
Q

State the products of oxidative phosphorylation.

A

ATP
OXNAD
H20

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27
Q

Explain the roles of coenzymes in the leaf cell

A

NADP/ FAD can accept hydrogen and carry electrons to the electron transport chain
Coenzyme a carries acetyl group to link reaction

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28
Q

Explain the likely effect on the blood cells if the water potential of the plasma was allowed to increase significantly

A

Water potential outside of cell will be higher so water will osmosis into the blood cells
Cells may burst

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29
Q

ADH does not stay in the blood indefinitely.
Suggest where ADH is removed from the blood and describe what then happens to the ADH
molecule.

A

In the liver, adh is hydrolysed and deaminated, goes through the orinthine cycle to create urea

In the kidney - not selectively reabsorbed so excreted in urine

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30
Q

Outline the hormonal and nervous mechanisms involved in the control of heart rate.

A 
1 adrenalin(e) increases ,
heart rate / stroke volume / cardiac output ; 
2 cardiovascular centre in medulla oblongata ;
3 idea of nervous connection to , SAN / sino-atrial node ; 
4 (which) controls frequency of waves of ,
5 vagus / parasympathetic , nerve decreases heart rate ;
6 accelerator / sympathetic , nerve increases heart rate ;
7 high blood pressure detected by ,
stretch receptors / baroreceptors ;
8 low blood pH / increased levels of blood CO2 ,
detected by chemoreceptors ;
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31
Q

Compare secretion and excretion

A

Similarities; require ATP, involved in homeostasis.
Differences; excretion - removal of waste from the body, potentially harmful/toxic waste.
Secretion- useful products which are used in cell communication

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32
Q

Role of the hepatic artery

A

Supplies the liver with oxygenated blood from the heart - oxygen needed for aerobic respiration

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33
Q

Role of hepatic portal vein

A

Carries oxygenated blood to the liver which is rich in the products of digestion - some of which are toxic compounds

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34
Q

Hepatic vein

A

This is where blood leaves the liver and rejoins the vena cava

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35
Q

Bile duct

A

Bile is secreted from the liver
Bike has digestive and excretory functions
Bile duct carries bile from the liver to the gall bladder where it is stored until needed for the digestion of fats in the small intestine

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36
Q

Inter-lobular vessels

A

Branches from the hepatic artery and hepatic vein enter

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37
Q

Sinusoid

A

A special chamber where blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein mix
Lined by liver cells so molecules can be removed from the blood and pass molecules into the blood
They empty into the interlobular vessels

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38
Q

Hepatocytes

Their metabolic functions

A

Liver cells
Very dense cytoplasm
Have a simple cuboidal shape with microvilli on the surface
They have many metabolic functions;
- protein synthesis
- transformation and storage of carbohydrates
- synthesis of cholesterol and bile salts
- detoxification

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39
Q

Kupffer cells

A

Specialist macrophages
Move about sinusoids to breakdown and recycle old blood cells
One of the products of this breakdown is bilirubin which is excreted in the bile and gives the brown pigment in faeces

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40
Q

Deamination equation

A

Amino acid + O2 –> keto acid + ammonia

41
Q

Orinthine cycle equation

A

2NH3 + CO2 –> CO(NH2)2 +H2O

Ammonia + carbon dioxide –> urea + water

42
Q

Ornithine cycle break down

A

Ornithine -> citulline [ammonia + co2 -> H2O]

Citulline -> arginine [ammonia -> H2O]

Arginine -> ornithine [H2O -> Urea]

43
Q

Differences in structure of the motor and sensory neurones

A 
Motor; 
Cell body in CNS
Cell body at end of neurone
Dendrites connect directly to cell body
Longer axon
No dendron
Ends at motor end plat
Sensory;
Cell body in PNS
Cell body in middle of neurone
Dendrites do not connect directly to cell body
Shorter axon
Dendron present 
Starts at sensory receptor
44
Q

In a photosynthesis experiment, how do you supply a source of carbon dioxide to aquatic plants

A

Sodium hydrogen carbonate

45
Q

Endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas

A

Endocrine;
Hormones released directly into the blood
Beta cells secrete insulin
Alpha cells secrete glucagon
Islets of langerhans monitor blood glucose concentrations

Exocrine;
Enzymes released into duct
Triggered by nervous stimulation 
Pancreatic secretions into duodenum
Enzymes - protease, carbohydrase and lipase
46
Q

Describe the features of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule that allow them to perform their function effectively.

A

Ultrafiltration; afferent arteriole wider than efferent
Higher hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus
Capillary wall has gaps to allow passage of smaller substances
Basement membrane stops removal of large molecules
Podocytes have finger-like projections ensure gaps to allow passage of substances

47
Q

Production of glucocorticoids in the body

A

Adrenal cortex

48
Q

Functions of the liver

A

Control of; blood glucose, amino acid and lipid levels
Synthesis of; erythrocytes in the foetus, bile, plasma proteins, CHOLESTROL and clotting agents
Shortage of ; vitamin A, D, B12’ iron and glycogen
Detoxification of; alcohol and drugs
Breakdown of hormones
Destruction of erythrocytes

49
Q

Detoxification

A

Ethanol Ethanal
Dehydrogenase Dehydrogenase Acetyl co
Ethanol –> ethanal –> ethanoic acid –>enzyme A
| | |
NAD- rednad. NAD- rednad. Link reaction

50
Q

Stimulus

Response

A

A change in the environment which causes a response

A change in behaviour/ physiology as a result of a change in environment

51
Q

Homeostasis

A

The maintenance of a constant internal environment despite external changes

52
Q

Negative feedback

Positive feedback

A

A process which brings about a reversal in any change in conditions

A process that increases any change detected by the receptors - goes against homeostasis

53
Q

Ectotherm

Endotherm

A

An organism which relies on external sources of heat to regulate its body temperature.

An organism which uses internal sources of heat eg from metabolism in the liver to maintain its body temperature

54
Q

Thermoegulatory centre

A

In hypothalamus

Monitors blood temperature and detects any change in the core body temperature

55
Q

Peripheral temperature receptors

A

Monitors temperature in the extremities, info is fed to the thermoregulatory centre in hypothalamus

56
Q

Sensory receptors

A

Specialised cells which detect changes in our surroundings

57
Q

Energy transducers

A

Convert one form of energy to another

58
Q

Polarised membrane

A

A membrane that has a potential difference across it - resting potential

59
Q

Depolarisation

A

Loss of polarisation across a membrane

60
Q

Saltatory conduction

A

The way the action potential appears to jump from one node of ranvier to the next

61
Q

Myelin sheath

A

Insulating layer of fatty material which is insulating - ions can’t pass through it

62
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

A chemical that diffuses across the cleft of a synapse to transmits signal to post synaptic neurone

63
Q

Cholinergic synapses

A

Synapses which use acetylcholine as it’s transmitter substance

64
Q

Acetylcholinesterase

A

An enzyme in the synaptic cleft which breaks acetylcholine down into choline and acetyl co A

65
Q

All or nothing rule

A

Refers to the fact that a neurone either conducts an action potential or it doesn’t. All action potentials have a magnitude of +40mV

66
Q

Summation

A

The way that several small potential changes can combine to produce one larger change in potential difference across the membrane

67
Q

Myelination

A

When neurones are insulated by an individual myelin sheath (made up of Schwann cells)

68
Q

Nodes of ranvier

A

Gaps in the myelin sheath about 2-3 Um long

69
Q

Hormones

A

Molecules that are released by endocrine glands directly into the blood. Act as messengers carrying a signal fro the endocrine gland to a specific target organ or tissue

70
Q

Endocrine gland

A

A gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood, ductless

71
Q

Exocrine gland

A

A gland that secretes molecules into a duct that carries molecules to where they are used

72
Q

Target cells

A

Cells which posses a specific receptor on their plasma membrane which is complementary to the shape of a specific hormone molecule

73
Q

Autotroph

A

Can make organic molecules from inorganic molecules

74
Q

Heterotroph

A

Feeds and digests organic molecules that have been made by another organism

75
Q

Describe how light is harvested in the chloroplast membranes

A

Pigments form photosystems
Light energy is absorbed by pigment molecules
Electron moves to a higher energy level - passed from one pigment to another
Proton passed to chlorophyll a in PS1 or PS11

76
Q

Endocrine gland

A

An organ that secretes hormones directly into the blood

77
Q

Exocrine gland

A

An organ that secretes a hormone into the duct

78
Q

Hormone

A

A chemical secreted by an organ which brings about a response in an organ elsewhere in the body

79
Q

Target cell

A

Cells which posses a specific receptor on their plasma membrane with a complementary shape to the hormone molecule

80
Q

1st and 2nd messengers

A

1st messenger - hormone that carries a chemical message from the endocrine gland to the receptor on a target tissue.
This activates an enzyme in the cell membrane which catalyses the production of a molecule inside the cell called a signalling molecule which signals to the other parts of the cell to change the way it works - this is the 2nd messenger

81
Q

Functions of the adrenal gland

Adrenal medulla

A 
Adrenal medulla; found in The centre of the gland. 
Release the hormone adrenaline which 'prepares the body for action' 
Effects;
Relax smooth muscles in bronchioles
Increase heart rate
Increase stroke volume of heart
Dilate pupils
Vasoconstriction to raise blood pressure
Conversion of glycogen to glucose
82
Q

Functions of the adrenal glands

Adrenal cortex

A

Uses cholestrol to produce certain steroid hormones
Their effects;
Mineralcorticoids - control of concentration of Na and K in the body
Glucocorticoids - control of the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins in the liver

83
Q

Exocrine function of the pancreas

A

Makes digestive enzymes which are secreted into the pancreatic duct into the small intestine - protease, carbohydrase, lipase

Makes sodiumhydrogencarbonate which is an alkali to neutralise stomach acid and create the correct ph environment for enzymes

84
Q

Endocrine functions of the pancrease

A

Islets of langerhans - produce insulin and glucagon which cannot go into the duct as they are proteins and so would be broken down,
Instead they diffuse by facilitated diffusion into the bloodstream to be taken around the body

85
Q

Where does glycolysis occur

A

In the cytoplasm

86
Q

Glycolysis

A 
Glucose
                         |   ATP - ADP
         Glucose -6- phosphate
                         |   ATP - ADP
      Hexose - 1-6 - biphosphate
                         |
             Triosephosphate x2
                         | ADP + Pi - ATP 
                        [I]
OxNAD - 2H RedNAD.        ADP +Pi - ATP
                   Pyruvate
87
Q

Where does the link reaction occur

A

In the matrix

88
Q

Where does krebs’ cycle happen

A

In the matrix

89
Q

Link reaction

A

/ Pyruvate
CoA Co2 - | —> oxnad - 2H - rednad
\ Acetyl coenzyme A
|
Acetyl group
\ | /
Krebs’ cycle

90
Q

Krebs’ cycle

A 
Acetyl
                 | 
           Citrate
       Co2 -| OxNAD -2H - RedNAD
               5C
       Co2 -| OxNAD -2H - RedNAD
               4C
ADP + Pi  | - ATP
                4C
                  | OxFAD -2H - RedFAD
                4C
                  |
                4C
                  | OxNAD -2H - RedNAD
            Oxaloate
                   | 
             Acetyl
91
Q

Where does the electron transport chain occur?

A

Across inner mitochondrial membrane

92
Q

Electron transport chain

A

1) RedNAD comes to first protein - RedNAD dehydrogenase and is oxidised, releasing H+ into matrix and the electron into the protein
2) electrons move along proteins in series of redox reactions, each time one H+ diffuses from the matrix into the inter membrane space
3) when electrons reach last protein they bind back with hydrogen + O2 to make water which is released as a waste product
4) H+ ions are being pumped in but can’t diffuse out as they are polarised so a concentration gradient is formed
5) CHEMIOSMOSIS - H+ ions diffuse out of protein channels associated with certain enzymes so that for every H+ ion that passes through, one ADP + Pi is converted into a molecule of ATP

93
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2880Kj mol -1

94
Q

Anaerobic respiration in muscles

A

RedNad \ / OxNAD
2H
C6H12O6 –> lactate + 150 Kj mol-1

95
Q

Anaerobic respiration in yeast

A

CO2. RedNAD - 2H - OxNAD
|. |
[Glycolysis] –> Pyruvate –> EthanAL –> EthanOL

96
Q

Structure and function of mitochondria

Matrix

A

Matrix is enclosed by inner membrane, it is semi - rigid and gel-like, consisting of proteins, lipids, circular DNA, mitochondrial ribosomes and enzymes

97
Q

Structure and function of mitochondria

Membrane

A

Inner membrane is folded into cristae which give it a large surface area

Between inner and outer membrane is the inter membrane space

98
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breakdown of glycogen into glucose

Biology (3 decks)

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