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Extra slides info (IMPORTANT) Flashcards

1
Q

Solving ill-defined problems carries a greater…

A
  • ‘Cognitive load’
  • Cognitive load: the amount of information held in mind at one time
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2
Q

Solving ill-defined problems presents what kind of brain activity?

A

Shows greater activity in the right lateral prefrontal cortex for ill-defined anagrams (have no constraints -> can you make a word with ZJAZ, instead of the well-defined anagram w/ constraints -> can you make a type of music with ZJAZ)

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3
Q

What’s the brute force approach to problem-solving?

A
  • Systematic algorithm that represents all the possible steps from the problem to goal state
  • Guaranteed to find a solution, but inefficient
  • Combinatorial explosion: computing too many alternatives
  • This approach takes up a lot of time and energy
  • This is a close cousin to decision-fatigue
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4
Q

What do the hill climbing strategy and means end analysis approaches use for their methods of problem-solving?

A

Heuristics

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5
Q

What’s the hill climbing strategy to problem-solving?

A
  • Select the operation that brings you closer to the goal without examining the whole problem space
  • This strategy can lead to a false outcome, a ‘local maxima’ (subgoal) is mistaken as the final goal
  • Does not always work because some problems require you to move away from the goal in order to solve it
  • Ex: dog trying to get a treat across a fence and only using the bumping into the fence and trying to get through approach
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6
Q

Describe the means end strategy approach to problem-solving

A
  • What “means” do I have to make the current state look like the goal state I want to be in?
  • Identifying sub-problems to complete the goal
  • Includes forward and backward movements and constantly
    evaluating the difference between current and goal states
  • We keep calculating our goal
  • More flexible approach than hill-climbing
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7
Q

What’s analogical problem solving?

A
  • Making comparisons between 2 situations; applying the solution from one of the situations to the other situation
  • Target: the situations the person is currently in (The Tumor Problem)
  • Source: the situation that shares similarity with the target (the Fortress Story)
  • Ex: the percentage of participants who correctly solved the tumor problem after reading a similar problem and solution grey much more than without a similar problem story
  • People aren’t very good at using analogies unless they are ”reminded”
  • Without the hint, a person must look beyond surface details, and consider the general structure (the gist)
  • Most success when a source and target share surface and structure
  • E.g., Using a past school-related problem to solve a current school-related problem vs a current relationship-related problem
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8
Q

What’s the Einstellung effect?

A
  • The bias to use familiar methods to solve a problem
    Ex: “I always do it this way”
  • Can result in an inability to seek and use a better method to solve a given problem
  • Leads to rigid thinking and blocks in problem solving
  • Ex: Functional and Mental Fixedness
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9
Q

What’s a classic test of functional fixedness?

A

Maier’s (1931) two-string problem

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10
Q

What’s mental fixedness?

A
  • Overusing mental sets
  • Responding with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate or less productive
  • The tendency to respond inflexibly to a particular type of problem and not alter your response
  • Ex: The water jug problem -> when you test people’s ability to solve this problem in the lab, you’ll find that a lot of people ( about 74%) used the complex equation for problems 7 and 8 to remain consistent even though there’s easy ways to solve them
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11
Q

What are the 4 features of insight?

A
  • Suddenness: The solution pops into mind with surprise
  • Ease: The solution comes quickly and fluently
  • Positive: A pleasant experience, even before assessing if the solution is effective
  • Confidence: The solution is believed to be the right one
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12
Q

What’s an insight problem?

A
  • A productive thinking process of forming new patterns or ways to view a problem
  • Restructuring a problem in a new way leads to a sudden solution
  • The Aha moment
  • Gestalt switches: the experience of having a sudden switch in how you see something
  • Ex: The triangle problem -> How can you move
    3 circles to get the triangle to point to the bottom of the page?
  • If you apply your standard way of solving a problem to this problem, it won’t work
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13
Q

Insight results from what?

A
  • Impasse
  • Mental impasse is being stuck in a solution path
  • Leads to sudden insight from restructuring the problem to see a new solution
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14
Q

What’s the difference between insight and non-insight?

A
  • Insight problem-solving feels like it happens suddenly
  • People cannot accurately predict performance (finding solution)
  • Non-insight problem solving comes with awareness
  • Step-by-step algorithms help predict performance
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15
Q

Metacognitive assessments (What you know about what you know) is not accurate for what kind of problems?

A

Insight problems

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16
Q

Describe the Electroencephalography (EEG)

A
  • An active brain produces electrical activity
  • Event-related potentials (ERP)
  • EEG measures activity in a large group of neurons at certain times
  • Provides estimate of when the brain is active
  • EEG provides information about activity in the brain at certain time periods
  • Good timing information (temporal resolution); millisecond level
  • Not good location information (spatial resolution)
  • Lots of things can affect ERP signals, which means a researcher needs to collect a lot experimental trials and this limits the studies you can run
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17
Q

Describe Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A

Structural MRI
* Anatomy of the brain
* E.g., volume, location of grey matter
* Used to detect structural anomalies

Functional (f)MRI
* Information about activity in the brain
* An indirect measure as it measures blood flow and not neural activity
* Active brain areas need oxygen (metabolic energy)
* A magnet detects changes in oxygenated blood
* Measure ratio of oxygenated and de- oxygenated blood flow in regions of the brain during a task
* Use measurements to create a spatial image of brain activity
Strengths:
* Provides good spatial resolution
* About a 1000 papers published per month ( lots of replication, validation)
Weaknesses:
* Does not provide good temporal resolution to determine timing of brain activity
* It is an indirect measure of neural activity: correlational
* Assumption that increase in blood flow means more activity
* It is very noisy …

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18
Q

Describe Brain stimulation as neuroimaging technique

A
  • Noninvasive method of changing brain activity that can inhibit or increase activity
  • A main form is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in a focal magnetic field induces temporary change in brain activity
  • TMS may improve memory (Participants in the TMS group had improved scores (up to 25%) on the post-
    training compared to pre-training memory test)
  • Good to test causality (testing effect of temporary lesion or stimulation)
  • fMRI and EEG are correlational (associate brain activity to task)
  • The way it works is not entirely clear
  • Stimulation techniques have broad effects on the brain, so hard to localize effects
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19
Q

What are exteroceptive sensations?

A

Any form of sensation that results from stimuli located outside the body detected by sensory organs

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20
Q

What are interoceptive sensations?

A
  • Sensations from inside our body
  • Proprioception: Sense of where our limbs are in space
  • Nociception: Sense of pain due to body damage
  • Equilibrioception: Sense of balance
  • Dancers have increased interoceptive accuracy (Christensen et al., 2017)
  • They could estimate heart rate more accurately than non-dancers
  • This was unrelated to fitness levels or counting ability
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21
Q

Describe early visual processing

A
  1. Light waves enter the eye and are projected onto the retina
    * The retina, a thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye, forms an inverted image
    * Later processes turn this image around
  2. Photoreceptors in the retina convert light to electrical activity
    * Rods: low light levels for night vision
    * Cones: high light levels for detailed color vision
  3. The electrical signal is sent to bipolar cells and then to the ganglion cells
  4. The signal exits through the optic nerve to the brain
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22
Q

What’s information compression in the visual system?

A
  • Millions of photoreceptors in each retina converge onto 100 x fewer ganglion cells -> optic nerve à brain
  • Input from the eyes to the brain is compressed
  • You don’t ‘see’ everything that is out there in the world
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23
Q

Describe the difference between the dorsal and ventral pathways

A
  • What (ventral) pathway
  • Occipital to temporal lobes
  • Shape, size, visual details
  • Where (dorsal) pathway
  • Occipital to parietal lobes
  • Location, space, movement information
  • spatial information
  • depth perception
  • estimating movement and direction of objects
  • Neuroimaging studies show separation of what and where pathways
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24
Q

What form of processing do we use for visual illusions?

A

Top-down processing

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25
Q

Describe the primary visual cortex

A

Primary Visual Cortex contains specialized regions that process particular visual attributes or features (functional specialization)
* Edges
* Angles
* Color
* Light

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26
Q

Describe the visual association areas

A

Visual Association Areas interpret visual information and assigns meaning

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27
Q

What could akinetopsia come from?

A

Damage to the dorsal where pathway

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28
Q

What could visual agnosia come from?

A

Damage to the ventral what pathway

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29
Q

What are the agnosia subtypes?

A
  • The location of the deficit along the visual information processing pipeline determines impairment
  • Apperceptive agnosia
  • Associative agnosia
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30
Q

What’s apperceptive agnosia?

A
  • Problems perceiving objects (faces for prosopagnosia look contorted)
  • A failure in recognizing objects due to problems with perceiving the elements of the objects as a whole
  • Single visual feature perception (e.g., color, motion) are relatively intact
  • Impairment is in grouping visual features to form perceptions that can interpreted as meaningful
  • She can’t copy these objects when they’re shown to her but she can draw them from memory (long term memory) -> she’s not drawing the model just a label that she knows already
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31
Q

What’s associative agnosia

A
  • Problems assigning meaning or labelling objects (can’t recognize familiar famous faces for prosopagnosia)
  • An inability to associate visual input with meaning
  • Problems on tests that require accessing information from memory:
  • Drawing objects from memory
  • Naming objects
  • Indicating the functions objects
  • Determining if a visual object is a possible or impossible object
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32
Q

What are the Gestalt organizational principles?

A
  • The principle of experience: Figure ground segmentation
  • Visual grouping principles:
  • Principle of proximity
  • Principle of closed forms
  • Principle of good contour
  • Principle of similarity
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33
Q

What’s the load theory of selective attention?

A
  • Attentional filtering can occur at different points
  • Filter placement will depend on how much of your resources are required for your currently attended-to task
  • If low resource load, we process non-attended information to a later stage in the pipeline (late-model)
  • If high resource load, we process non-attended information only to an early stage the pipeline (early-model)
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34
Q

What are the 2 ways to define load?

A

Central resource capacity view
- One resource pool from which all attention resources are allocated

Multiple resource capacity view
* Multiple resources from which attention resources are allocated
* Attentional load depend on the match between the relevant and irrelevant information
* E.g., Attentional capacity is reached sooner if relevant and irrelevant information are from the same modality

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35
Q

What’s evidence for the early attentional processing model?

A

Dichotic listening task

36
Q

What’s evidence for the late attentional processing model?

A

Stroop task (meaning of words interferes with physical characteristics aka ink colour)

37
Q

What’s the general difference between early and late attention filtering models?

A
  • Early Selection Models: information is filtered at the level of perception
  • Late Selection Models: information is filtered at the level of meaning
38
Q

Describe the flanker task

A
  • Technique used to study attention in which a distractor is included alongside experimental stimuli to see whether the distractor is processed, increasing reaction time
  • Low load condition: distractors were all the same and look different from the targets (obvious)
  • High load: distractors were all different and looked like the targets
  • They found that the incompatible flanker only caused an increased reaction time in the low-load condition but not in high-load conditions since low-load more open to distraction because you have leftover attentional resources
39
Q

What’s the difference between change blindness and inattentional blindness?

A
  • Change blindness is the inability to detect changes in a scene
  • Inattentional blindness a failure to attend to new or unexpected events in our attended-to environment that is not part of our focused task
  • E.g., A deer jumps in front of your car; you don’t notice it even though you are attending to that space (the road)
40
Q

What’s Inhibition of return (IOR)?

A
  • Attention is inhibited from going to a recently attended space after a long duration between space cue and target (SOA)
  • Adaptative, it helps us search our environment efficiently
  • Prevents us from checking the same place over and over when looking for something
41
Q

Describe Posner’s cuing task

A
  • People are presented with a cue and they have to orient it in space
  • When the cue is at the same place as the target (valid trial) people are quicker to identify the target in the right spot (attention has already been activated in that area
  • When the cue is in a different spot than the target (invalid target) people are less quick to identify the target in the right spot
  • Attention effect:
    Reaction times to valid trials area FASTER than to invalid trials
42
Q

What are the different types of visual search tasks?

A

Feature Search:
* Search for an object that is different from the distractors based on one feature
* Can use bottom-up and automatic processing
- No matter how many distracters are in a feature search, as long as you’re looking for something that differs from the other distracters based on a single feature you’ll find it almost immediately (“pop-out” effect)

Conjunction Search:
* Search for an object that is different from the distractors across many features
* Requires top-down attention
- Conjunction search often happens when you’re searching for something in your environment that looks like many distracters
- People take longer to do conjunction searches than feature searches since for these searches you need to engage top-down processing
- With conjunction searches, it takes longer to detect targets with more distractions
- Ex: where’s waldo

43
Q

What’s the pop-out effect?

A
  • The time needed to find a target that’s different by one feature from distractors is independent of the number of distractors (set size)
  • A pop out effect exists for features processed automatically in the visual cortex
44
Q

What’s overt VS covert attention?

A
  • Both embodied theories of attention
  • Eye movements detect visual attentional goals
  • Overt visual attention: attending to something with your eye movements
  • Eye tracking measures this
  • When people were asked to view this image of the scene, the eye movements changed based on different goals
  • Covert visual attention: attending to something without eye movements
45
Q

What are Cultural differences in visual attention

A
  • Measured eye movements as two groups (Western, East Asian) attended to images with a central object (tiger, airplane) and background (mountain, forest)
  • Western students were more likely to fixate on the central object of the picture and east asian students focused more on the background of the image
46
Q

What’s vigilance decrement?

A
  • Sustained attention is difficult to hold overtime
  • 2 interpretations:
    Underload theory: boredom -> mind-wandering -> divided attention
  • Overload theory: increase attentional demands with time
47
Q

Divided attention involves what?

A
  • Task switching
  • Changing from working on one task to working on another task
  • This involves using top-down processes to switch between mental sets associated with each task
  • A mental set is a method of organizing information based on the goals of a task
  • Switch cost: decline in performance (reaction time, accuracy) after switching tasks
  • The attentional system must be ‘re-set’ to engage the next task
48
Q

What’s the difference between exogenous and endogenous attention?

A
  • Endogenous attention: When an individual chooses what to pay attention to based on goals and intention
  • Top-down processing
  • intraparietal sulcus (IPS)
  • Exogenous attention: When a property of the environment drives us to pay attention
  • Bottom-up processing
  • Temporo-parietal junction (TPJ)
49
Q

What’s attentional capture?

A
  • Bottom-up cues that are automatically processed
  • The sound of a car crashing; sirens; seeing a mouse scurry in the corner of a room
  • Anything that’s very perceptually salient will capture your attention
  • It is about surprise or a prediction error
50
Q

What captures our attention?

A
  • Information that’s important for survival and is automatically processed
  • Many of these forms of information have functionally specialized processing regions in the brain (ex: faces and human bodies) -> measuring attentional capture of faces with go/no-go task
  • Personally relevant stimuli (your name)
  • Addictive stimuli
  • Fearful stimuli
51
Q

What determines loudness perception?

A

Amplitude and frequency of the wave

52
Q

What determines pitch perception?

A

Frequency of sound wave

53
Q

What’s a phons?

A

Perceptual measurement unit (not measuring physical property of the sound) -> how loud someone thinks something is

54
Q

What are the characteristics of amplitude?

A

Physical Property = Amplitude (dB)
Perceptual Property = Loudness
- Low amplitude: lower sound
- High amplitude: high sound

55
Q

What are the characteristics of frequency?

A

Physical Property = Frequency
Perceptual Property = Pitch
- A lot more cycles in a high frequency wave than a low frequency wave
- High frequency wave = high pitch
- Low frequency wave = low pitch

56
Q

What does the human ear shows optimal tuning mean

A

The human ear shows optimal tuning -> optimal capturing of frequencies of sound

57
Q

The Auditory nerve projects to where?

A
  • Primary auditory cortex
  • Auditory cortex is in the superior temporal lobe
  • What you hear generally gets projected to the contralateral side (what you hear in right ear goes to left side of brain)
58
Q

What do hair cells do?

A

Transduce mechanical signal into electrical signal

59
Q

Describe the tonotopic map for hearing

A
  • Tonotopic coding along the basilar membrane
  • Different frequencies will make the basilar membrane vibrate more or less
  • End of basilar membrane furthest from ossicles processes low frequency sound
  • End of basilar membrane nearest the ossicles processes high frequency sounds
  • End of the basilar membrane near the ossicles is thicker and narrower
  • The structure along the basilar membrane will process different frequencies
60
Q

Why does the pinnae look different in different species?

A

They’re adapted to capture sounds that are very relevant to the particular organism and adapt accordingly

61
Q

What’s Parallel activation
in language?

A
  • Both languages are active regardless of the requirement to use one language alone
  • One way to examine parallel activation is to take advantage of the fact that many languages have words that share properties between languages
  • Cognates (similar in form and meaning across languages ex: piano)
  • Homographs (similar in form but not meaning across languages ex: coin)
  • Many studies have demonstrated that bilinguals recognize cognates more quickly but homographs more slowly that control words.
  • Monolinguals do not show these effects
62
Q

Describe the findings for the study by Morford et al. (2011) “Are ASL-English bilinguals affected by their knowledge of sign language even though ASL was not present in the experiment?”

A
  • Bilinguals are faster to judge English when the ASL converges and slower when it conflicts
  • Monolinguals do not show these effects
63
Q

Describe the study by Bice and Kroll on
whether the newly acquired spanish would come to affect the L1 in english

A
  • Whether the newly acquired spanish would come to affect the L1 in english
  • In the study they had all non-english words but some of these words were cognates between english and spanish
  • They measured the brain activity as well
  • Behaviorally, found no cognate effect for either group
  • ERP responses showed the native language is affected by the second language
64
Q

What are some key points about bilingualism?

A
  1. Bilinguals are not 2 monolinguals in one. Both languages are active and competing
    The two languages are not separate.
  2. The bilingual’s language system is permeable in both directions. Critically, the L1 changes in the response to learning and using an L2.
    Bilingualism has consequences for both languages..
  3. Not all bilinguals are the same. Bilinguals differ by virtue of where they live and the demands that are placed on them to use each language.
    The interactional context of language use is important and language experiences are multifaceted.
65
Q

How did Gullifer et al. (2018) show that French-English bilinguals report greater linguistic diversity?

A
  • They show a higher reliance on contextual cues
  • More likely to monitor their environment in order to use linguistic cues
  • Exhibit higher connectivity between regions implicated in monitoring such as the anterior cingulate cortex and the putamen
66
Q

Individuals in more linguistically diverse environments may experience greater…

A

Contextual linguistic diversity

67
Q

The influence of L2 on L1 is not limited to words, it also impacts what?

A

It’s also about the grammar

68
Q

In a verbal fluency task by Linck et al. (2009), what were the findings for immersed learners vs classroom learners?

A
  • Ex: Say as many ANIMALS as you can
  • Compared to classroom learners, immersed learners produced less L1 exemplars
  • The L1 is suppressed while living in an L2 context
  • The native language may take a hit as a way to incorporate the second language into the task
69
Q

How do we measure initial stages of comprehension
and later stages of comprehension?

A

Initial stages of comprehension:
First fixation duration: length of the 1st time eye fixates on the target

Later stages of comprehension:
Total fixation duration: length of all eye fixations on target

70
Q

Describe the findings of Hoshino & Kroll (2008) picture naming task

A
  • Picture naming task in english
  • They had triple cognates words -> words that shared meaning across 3 different languages (ex: guitar)
  • Found that they’re faster at naming cognates than non-cognates
71
Q

What’s the difference between categories, concepts and exemplars

A
  • Categories: items that are grouped together
  • Concepts: general knowledge of a category
  • Exemplars: individual items in a category
72
Q

What’s cognitive economy?

A
  • A balance between simplification and differentiation
  • Use the simplest terms that is still meaningful for the situation
  • General public “This is an owl”
  • Birders ”This is a snowy owl”
    “Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler.” Einstein
73
Q

What’s a graded concept organization

A
  • Organizing concepts according to levels
  • Ex: a fish may be a better example of a fish than a shark
  • All depends how the model suggests we represent concepts
74
Q

What are ad-hoc categories?

A
  • A category concept that is invented for a specific purpose or goal
  • Bringing together dissimilar members into a single temporary category to meet a goal
  • Related to creativity
75
Q

What’s conduction aphasia?

A
  • Neural pathway from between Broca’s and Wernicke’s area
  • Production intact
  • Comprehension intact
  • Impaired repetition
  • Load dependent
  • Arcuate fasciculus
  • When there’s damage to the arcuate fasciculus, you get a disconnect between producing speech and comprehending speech and they deal with imapired repetition
76
Q

What’s phonological VS surface dyslexia

A

Surface Dyslexia:
- impaired at producing irregular words (25% of English words), like ‘Comb” or “Thought”
* Reading happens letter-by-letter
* Difficulty matching words to mental dictionary

Phonological Dyslexia: impaired at reading non-words or new words
* Readings happens by comparing whole words to mental dictionary (lexicon)
* Difficulty reading letter by letter

77
Q

What’s the dual route model for reading?

A

Printed word -> Mental Dictionary (Whole word) OR Grapheme-Phoneme Conversion (Letter by letter) -> Speech

78
Q

Nativist view in language

A

Language and thought are independent

79
Q

Linguistic relativity

A

Language and thought are interconnected (ex: russian blue)

80
Q

What aspects of language are supported by the right hemisphere?

A

Prosody and pitch to convey intonation, mood, attitude, gestural communication

81
Q

What are paraphasias?

A
  • Verbal: substituting a word with something semantically-related
  • Shares meaning with intended word
  • Swapping term brother with sister
  • Phonemic (literal): swapping or adding speech sounds
  • Shares sounds with intended word
  • Calling Crab Salad: Sad Cralad
  • Neologisms: using a made-up word
  • Mansplain
82
Q

Where is wernicke’s located?

A

Posterior superior temporal lobe damage, typically left hemisphere

83
Q

Where is Broca’s located?

A

Left inferior frontal gyrus

84
Q

What’s the uniformity support for language innateness?

A
  • We have a very similar development trajectory to learning language
  • These milestones are pretty set and indicate that language isn’t about learning but about an inborn skill
85
Q

What’s the convergence support for language innateness?

A
  • Children converge on the same sort of grammatical rules
  • These involve the same rules but 1 is grammatically correct and the other isn’t
  • Most children will learn that sentence 2 is more grammatically correct than 1 -> indicating that there’s a pre-existing knowledge of grammar
86
Q

Where can we find linguistic ambiguity where we have to use context and top-down processing to solve?

A
  • Phonological – within a sound
  • Lexical – within a word
  • Syntactic or parsing - within a sentence
87
Q

Describe language and spatial frames of reference

A
  • Intrinsic frame: Spatial relations described in terms of objects
  • Ex: Drake is next to Diamond
  • Relative frame: Spatial relations described from an observer’s viewpoint
  • Ex: rake is to the right of Diamond
  • Absolute frame: Spatial relations described as map coordinates
    • Drake is to the west of Diamond

Cognition (7 decks)

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