extra Flashcards
What is Levothyroxine (T4)?
Synthetic form of thyroid hormone; converted to T3 in the body.
What are the actions of Levothyroxine (T4)?
Increases metabolism, regulates growth, and energy production.
What are common side effects of Levothyroxine (T4)?
Hyperthyroid symptoms (tachycardia, insomnia, weight loss); cardiac events (arrhythmias at high doses).
What are Glucocorticoids?
Prednisone, Hydrocortisone: Mimic cortisol action.
What are the actions of Glucocorticoids?
Reduce inflammation, suppress the immune response, increase glucose production.
What are common side effects of Glucocorticoids?
Osteoporosis, weight gain, moon face, high BP, hyperglycemia, infection risk; long-term use: adrenal suppression.
What is Fludrocortisone?
Mimics aldosterone; regulates sodium and potassium balance.
What are the actions of Fludrocortisone?
Controls blood volume, pressure, and electrolyte balance.
What are common side effects of Fludrocortisone?
Hypertension, edema, hypokalemia, alkalosis.
What is Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?
Estrogen & Progesterone: Treat menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, vaginal dryness).
What are the actions of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?
Protects bone density, alleviates symptoms.
What are common side effects of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?
Breast tenderness, nausea, headaches, VTE, breast cancer risk (long-term use).
What is the treatment for Hypothyroidism?
Levothyroxine (T4): Replaces thyroid hormone.
What is the impact of treating Hypothyroidism?
Corrects metabolic imbalance, alleviates symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance.
What is the treatment for Hyperthyroidism?
Methimazole, Propylthiouracil: Inhibit thyroid hormone production; radioactive iodine: Ablates thyroid tissue.
What is the impact of treating Hyperthyroidism?
Reduces thyroid hormone levels, normalizes metabolism.
What is the treatment for Adrenal Insufficiency (Addison’s Disease)?
Hydrocortisone (glucocorticoid) and Fludrocortisone (mineralocorticoid).
What is the impact of treating Adrenal Insufficiency?
Restores cortisol and aldosterone, reduces symptoms like fatigue, weight loss, hypotension.
What is the treatment for Cushing’s Syndrome?
Ketoconazole, Mitotane: Suppress cortisol production; surgical removal of tumors if necessary.
What is the impact of treating Cushing’s Syndrome?
Reduces excess cortisol, normalizes metabolism, and alleviates symptoms like weight gain, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis.
What is the treatment for Osteoporosis?
Bisphosphonates (e.g., alendronate), SERMs, calcitonin, Denosumab.
What is the impact of treating Osteoporosis?
Prevents bone resorption, increases bone density, reduces fracture risk.
What is the mechanism of Insulin?
Facilitates glucose uptake by cells.
What are the actions of Insulin?
Lowers blood glucose and regulates fat/protein metabolism.
What are common side effects of Insulin?
Hypoglycemia, weight gain, injection site reactions.
What is Metformin (Biguanide)?
Reduces hepatic glucose production and increases insulin sensitivity.
What are common side effects of Metformin?
Gastrointestinal issues (nausea, diarrhea), lactic acidosis (rare), B12 deficiency.
What are Sulfonylureas?
Stimulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells.
What are common side effects of Sulfonylureas?
Hypoglycemia, weight gain, rash.
What are DPP-4 Inhibitors?
Inhibit DPP-4 enzyme, enhancing incretin effect (increases insulin and reduces glucagon secretion).
What are common side effects of DPP-4 Inhibitors?
Upper respiratory infections, headaches, gastrointestinal discomfort.
What are GLP-1 Receptor Agonists?
Mimic GLP-1, enhancing insulin secretion and reducing glucagon release.
What are common side effects of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists?
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pancreatitis (rare).
What are SGLT2 Inhibitors?
Inhibit SGLT2, preventing glucose reabsorption and promoting excretion in urine.
What are common side effects of SGLT2 Inhibitors?
UTIs, genital infections, dehydration, hypotension, ketoacidosis (rare).
What is the management for Type 1 Diabetes?
Insulin therapy: Basal-bolus regimens (long-acting insulin for basal coverage, rapid-acting insulin for meals).
What is the goal for managing Type 1 Diabetes?
Tight glycemic control.
What is the management for Type 2 Diabetes?
Metformin first-line; add-on therapy: Sulfonylureas, DPP-4 inhibitors, GLP-1 agonists, and SGLT2 inhibitors.
What is the goal for managing Type 2 Diabetes?
Improve insulin sensitivity, control blood glucose, prevent long-term complications.
What are the adverse effects of diabetic medications?
Insulin & Sulfonylureas: Hypoglycemia, weight gain; Metformin: Lactic acidosis (rare), GI issues; GLP-1 Agonists: Nausea, vomiting; SGLT2 Inhibitors: UTIs, ketoacidosis (rare).
What drug interactions can affect diabetes management?
Corticosteroids, Beta-blockers, Thiazide diuretics: Can increase blood glucose levels; Alcohol: May increase hypoglycemia risk with insulin.
What is the role of the hypothalamus in regulating pituitary hormone secretion?
The hypothalamus releases releasing hormones (e.g., TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH) and inhibiting hormones (e.g., somatostatin, dopamine) to control the secretion of pituitary hormones.
What is an example of the hypothalamus’s role in hormone regulation?
TRH stimulates the release of TSH from the pituitary, which in turn regulates thyroid function.
What are the mechanisms and causes of endocrine hypofunction and hyperfunction?
Hypofunction: Due to gland destruction, autoimmune conditions, or insufficient stimulation from the hypothalamus/pituitary (e.g., Addison’s disease, hypothyroidism); Hyperfunction: Caused by tumors, hyperplasia, or genetic mutations that increase hormone production (e.g., Cushing’s syndrome, Graves’ disease).
What are the types of pituitary tumors and their effects on endocrine function?
Adenomas: Most common pituitary tumors, can be functioning (secreting hormones) or non-functioning (no hormone secretion); Prolactinomas: Overproduction of prolactin, leading to galactorrhea and hypogonadism; Corticotroph adenomas: Overproduction of ACTH, leading to Cushing’s syndrome.
What are the clinical features, causes, and consequences of hypopituitarism?
Clinical Features: Fatigue, weight loss, cold intolerance, decreased libido, infertility, adrenal insufficiency, and growth retardation; Causes: Tumors, trauma, infections, autoimmune diseases, or genetic defects; Consequences: Impaired function of target glands (thyroid, adrenal, gonads), and growth failure in children.
What are the manifestations of growth hormone deficiency and excess in children and adults?
Deficiency in Children: Short stature, delayed puberty, and growth retardation; Excess in Children: Gigantism (abnormal growth of long bones); Deficiency in Adults: Reduced muscle mass, increased fatigue, and low bone density; Excess in Adults: Acromegaly (enlargement of hands, feet, and facial features).
What hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?
Cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens.
How is feedback regulation managed for adrenal hormones?
Cortisol is regulated by ACTH from the pituitary, which is controlled by the hypothalamus through CRH; Aldosterone secretion is influenced by angiotensin II, K+ levels, and ACTH.
What are the stages of adrenal cortical insufficiency and their clinical significance?
Primary Adrenal Insufficiency (Addison’s disease): Deficiency in cortisol and aldosterone; caused by autoimmune destruction of adrenal glands; Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency: Due to pituitary failure (low ACTH levels); Acute Adrenal Crisis: Severe cortisol deficiency, characterized by hypotension.
