Extension Flashcards
5 Sampling Methods
Volunteer Stratified Random Systematic Opportunity
Define Time Sampling
Recording behaviour is a given time frame. For example, noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds. During that time, the observer might tick from one or more categories.
Define Event Sampling
Counting the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs from a target individual within a given time frame. For example, counting how many times a person smiles in a 10 minute period.
Strength of Time Sampling
Less time consuming for researcher.
Gather results from all participants
Weakness of Time Sampling
Miss behaviour not in the time frame
More general
Strengths of Event Sampling
Allows more focus on one detail
More rich data
Weakness of Event Sampling
Misses other behavior
Define Validity
Accuracy
Types of Validity
Internal Validity
External Validity
Define Internal Validity
Whether the researcher is meaning what they intend to measure,or whether there are the factors affecting the DV
Define External Validity
How far the findings can be generalised outside of the research setting.
Examples of internal validity
Investigator / Experimenter effects = Ques from investigator
Demand Characteristics = Ques in the environment
Social Desirability = Lying for the desire to fit in.
Define Order Effects
Changes in participants’ performance due to their repeating the same of similar test more than once
Define Extrusions Variables
All variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect the results (DV) of the experiment.
Define Confounding Variables
Variable(s) that have affected the results (DV), apart from the IV. A confounding variable could be an extraneous variable that has not been controlled.
Define Face Validity
Whether a measure looks like it is measuring what is meant to measure.
Define Concurrent Validity
Whether the current measure is accurate when compared to a previous, validated, measure.
If the data gathered is the same using both measures the concurrent validity of the current measure can be confirmed.
A perfect positive correlation?
Will have a correlation coefficient of +1.0
A Perfect negative correlation?
Will have a correlation coefficient of -1.0
Strong Correlations
+0.65 / -0.65
Carrying Out Content Analysis
Step One- Sample the data ( Analyse all data or just select a section)
Step Two - Coding the data (Done by using behavioural categories
Step Three - Representing the data ( Counting the instance in each category = Quantitative / Describing The instance In each category - QUALITATIVE)
Types Of External Validity
Population = Can it be generalised to a wider population?
Temporal = Cant generalise to other time periods or to modern day culture
Ecological = How valid can it apply to the real world
Strength of content analysis
increase reliability, multiple material and sources of information,can be replicated, Someone else could carry it out.
Real world applicable. Basing it on real life, more ecologically valid, is reflective of the real world, real emotions / views.
Weakness of content analysis
Bias view, Interpreter/ observer bias. Subjective to researcher
Culture bias, person coding is culturally different from who provided the material
Alternative Strengths of content analysis
Relatively easy to perform
Inexpensive
Does not require interaction with participants
no investigator effect
Thematic Analysis Define
Thematic Analysis is used when analyzing qualitative data in order to identify theme. Data can then be organised into themes and conclusions can be made
Steps of Thematic Analysis
Step 1: Read every transcript carefully
Step 2: Break the data up into smaller units, code the units.
Step 3: Combine the smaller codes into larger themes
Step 4: Identify the most common themes.
The Features of Science
Empirical Methods Objectivity Replicability Theory Construction Hypothesis Testing
Define Empirical Methods
Refers to data being collected through direct observation or experiment.
o Empirical evidence does not rely on argument or belief.
o Instead, experiments and observations are carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other investigators can repeat and attempt to verify the work.
Define Objectivity
o Researchers should remain totally value free when studying; they should try to remain totally unbiased in their investigations. I.e. Researchers are not influenced by personal feelings and experiences.
o Objectivity means that all sources of bias are minimized and that personal or subjective ideas are eliminated. The pursuit of science implies that the facts will speak for themselves, even if they turn out to be different from what the investigator hoped.
Define Replicability
o This refers to whether a particular method and finding can be repeated with different/same people and/or on different occasions, to see if the results are similar.
o If a dramatic discovery is reported, but it cannot be replicated by other scientists it will not be accepted.
o If we get the same results over and over again under the same conditions, we can be sure of their accuracy beyond reasonable doubt.
o This gives us confidence that the results are reliable and can be used to build up a body of knowledge or a theory: vital in establishing a scientific theory.
Define Theory Construction
In psychology, a theory is a proposed explanation for the causes of behaviour. To be scientific, a theory needs to be a logically organized set of propositions that defines events, describes relationships among events, and explains and predicts the occurrence of events. A scientific theory should also guide research by offering testable hypotheses that can be rigorously tested.
Define Hypothesis Testing
o E.g. a statement made at the beginning of an investigation that serves as a prediction and is derived from a theory. There are different types of hypotheses (null and alternative), which need to be stated in a form that can be tested (i.e. operationalized and unambiguous)
Define Falsifiability
It proposes that for something to be scientific it must be be able to be proven false. If things are falsifiable (able to possibly be proven false) then they can be used in scientific studies and inquiry.
Explain Inductive Method (Bottom Up Method)
Reasoning Starts with a small observation or question then works its way to a theory by examining related issues
Explain Deductive Method (Top Down Method)
Reasoning starts with a general theory statement or hypothesis than works its way down to a conclusion based on evidence.
Example of Inductive Method Research
Piaget found his kids had different cognitive abilities
He tested their abilities with experience and observations
He concluded and developed his hypothesis
His theory of cognitive development was created after
Example of Deductive Method Research
Newtons Law of Gravity was developed straight away as a theory
Then he proceeded to go and find evidence ad support for his theory,
The Scientific Process: Induction
Observation Testable Hypothesis Conduct A Study to test the Hypothesis Draw Conclusions Propose Theory
The Scientific Process: Deduction
Observation Propose Theory Testable Hypothesis Conduct a study to test the hypothesis Draw Conclusion
Define paradigm
Collection of Shared Belief.
A Shared set of assumptions about the subject matter of a discipline and the methods appropriate to its study.
Define Paradigm Shift
When the set of beliefs change over time
Define Probability
A numerical measure of likelihood/chance that a certain event will happen.
EG the probability of rolling an odd number on a dice is 50%
Define Significance
A Statistical term used to indicate whether the research findings are sufficiently strong enough to reject a null hypothesis and accept the experimental hypothesis. In psychology the accepted level of significance is usually P<0.05
Define Type 1 Error
An Error which occurs when a researcher rejects a null hypothesis which is true
Define Type 2 Error
An error which occurs when a researcher accepts a null hypothesis which was not true.
Reporting Investigations
Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References
Define Abstract In content of Reporting Investigations
The Key details of the research report
Define Introduction In content of Reporting Investigations
A look at past research on a similar topic. Including a aim & hypothesis
Define Method In content of Reporting Investigations
A Description of what the researchers did, including design, sample, appatus, materials, producer, ethics
Define Results In content of Reporting Investigations
A Description of what the results of a research found including descriptive and inferential statistics
Define Discussion In content of Reporting Investigations
A Consideration of what the results of a research study tell us in terms of psychological theory
Define References In content of Reporting Investigations
Lists of sources that are refereed to or quoted in the article.
What is the difference between results and discussion
Results are statistical
Discussion is verbal, Nit picking at the experiment
Name the 8 Statistical Testing
Mann-Whitney Wilcoxon Unrelated T-test Related T-test Spearman's Rho Pearson's R Chi-Squared Sign
Which Statistical Tests, test for a difference
Mann-Whitney Wilcoxon Unrelated T-test Related T-test Sign
Which Statistical Tests, test for a correlation
Spearman’s Rho
Pearson’s R
Which Statistical Tests, test for an Assosiation
Chi-Squared
What type of experimental Design are related
Repeated Measures
Matched Pairs
What type of experimental Design are non-related
Independant
Describe Nominal Data
When data is in the form of categories data can only appear it one category.
Most basic level of measurement
Everyday example, favorite animal: Cat, Dog, Sheep, Cow
Describe Ordinal Data
Data/ Information that has been ordered ranked in some way.
More precise level of measurement than nominal.
Quite subjective.
Everyday example, Race position: 1st, 2nd, 3rd
Describe Interval Data
Data which is based on measurements
Most Precise level of data
More objective than ordinal.
Everyday example, Time taken to run said race, 55 seconds, 39 seconds, 42 seconds.
The Rule Of R
Statistical Tests with an ‘R’ in its name must be more or equal to the critical value.
Describe Chi-Squared
Used to test associated correlations
Its Data should be nominal data
It is unrelated design
Describe Mann-Whitney
Used to test for a difference
Data Should Be Ordinal
Unrelated Design
Describe Wilcoxon
Used to test for a difference
Data should be ordinal
Related Design
Describe Spearmans Row
Used to test correlation
Data should be Ordinal
Describe Pearson’s R
Used to test Correlation
Data should be Interval
Describe Related T-test
Used to test for difference
Data should be Interval
Related Design
Describe Unrelated T-test
Used to test for a difference
Data should be Interval
Unrelated
How to remember the Statistical Test Table
Unrelated Design - Related Design- Test of correlation
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Carrots Should Come
Mashed With Swede
Under Roast Potatoes
