Explorations Chapter 13

Question 1

Age of Discovery

Answer 1

A period between the late 1400s and late 1700s when European explorers and ships sailed extensively across the globe in pursuit of new trading routes and territorial conquest

Question 2

Ancestry

Answer 2

Biogeographical information about an individual, traced either through the study of an individual’s genome, skeletal characteristics, or
some other form of forensic/archaeological evidence. Anthropologists carry out probabilistic estimates of ancestry. They attribute sets of human
remains to distinctive “ancestral” groups using careful statistical testing and should report ancestry estimations with statistical probability values.

Question 3

Binomial Nomenclature

Answer 3

A system of naming living things developed by Linnaeus in the 1700s. It employs a scientific name made up of two italicized Latin or Greek words, with the first word capitalized and representative of an organism’s genus and the second word indicating an
organism’s species (e.g.,Homo sapiens,Australopithecus afarensis,Pongo tapanuliensis, etc.).

Question 4

Biological anthropology

Answer 4

A branch of study under anthropology (the study of humankind) that focuses on when and where humans and our human ancestors first originated, how we have evolved and adapted globally over time, and the reasons why we see biological variation among
humans worldwide today.

Question 5

Biological determinism

Answer 5

The erroneous concept that an individual’s behavioral characteristics are innate and determined by genes, brain size, or other physiological attributes—and, notably, without the influence of social learning or the environment around the individual during
development.

Question 6

Bony labyrinth

Answer 6

A system of interconnected canals within the auditory(ear-or hearing-related) apparatus, located in the inner ear and responsible for balance and the reception of sound waves.

Question 7

Cline

Answer 7

A gradient of physiological or morphological change in a single character or allele frequency among a group of species across environmental or geographical lines (e.g., skin color varies clinally, as, over many generations, human groups living nearer the equator have adapted to have more
skin pigmentation).

Question 8

Continuous variation

Answer 8

This term refers to variation that exists between individuals and cannot be measured using distinct categories. Instead, differences between individuals within a population in relation to one particular trait are measurable along a smooth, continuous gradient.

Question 9

Ecological niche

Answer 9

The position or status of an organism within its community and/or ecosystem, resulting from the organism’s structural and functional adaptations (e.g., bipedalism, omnivorous diets, lactose digestion, etc.).

Question 10

Essentialism

Answer 10

A belief or view that an entity, organism, or human grouping has a specific set of characteristics that are fundamentally necessary to its being and classification into definitive categories.

Question 11

Ethnicity

Answer 11

A term used commonly in an interchangeable way with the term race, complicated because how different people define this term depends on the qualities and characteristics they use to assign a label or identity to themselves and/or others (which may include aspects of family background, skin color, language(s) spoken, religion, physical proportions, behavior and temperament, etc.).

Question 12

Eugenics

Answer 12

A set of beliefs and practices that involves the controlled selective breeding of human populations with the hope of improving their heritable qualities, especially through surgical procedures like sterilization and legal rulings that affect marriage rights for interracial couples.

Question 13

Gene flow

Answer 13

A neutral (or nonselective) evolutionary process that occurs when genes get shared between populations.

Question 14

Genetic Drift

Answer 14

A neutral evolutionary process in which allele frequencies change from generation to generation due to random chance.

Question 15

Heterogenicity

Answer 15

The quality of being diverse genetically

Question 16

Homogenous

Answer 16

The quality of being uniform genetically

Question 17

Human diversity

Answer 17

Human diversity is a measure of variation that may describe how many different forms of human there are, separated or clustered into groups according to some genetic, phenotypic, or cultural trait(s). The term can be applied to culture (in which case humans can be
described as significantly diverse) or genetics (in which case humans are not diverse because all humans on Earth share a majority of their genes).

Question 18

Human variation

Answer 18

Differences in biology, physiology, body chemistry, behavior, and culture. By measuring these differences, we understand the degrees of variation between individuals, groups, populations, or species.

Question 19

Isolation-by-distance model

Answer 19

A model that predicts a positive relationship between genetic distances and geographical distances between pairs of populations.

Question 20

Monogenetic

Answer 20

Pertaining to the idea that the origin of a species is situated in one geographic region or time (as opposed to polygenetic).

Question 21

Mutation

Answer 21

A gene alteration in the DNA sequence of an organism. As a random, neutral evolutionary process that occurs over the course of meiosis and early cell development, gene mutations are possible sources of variation in any given human gene pool. Genetic mutations that occur in more than 1% of a population are termed polymorphisms.

Question 22

Natural selection

Answer 22

An evolutionary process whereby certain traits are perpetuated through successive generations, likely owing to the advantages they give organisms in terms of chances of survival and/or reproduction.

Question 23

Nonconcordance

Answer 23

The fact of genes or traits not varying with one another and instead being inherited independently

Question 24

Otherness

Answer 24

In post colonial anthropology, we now understand “othering”to mean any action by someone or some group that establishes a division between“us”and“them”in relation to other individuals or populations.This could be based on linguistic or cultural differences, and it has largely been based on external characteristics throughout history.

Question 25

Out-of-Africa model

Answer 25

A model that suggests that all humans originate from one single group of Homo sapiens in (sub-Saharan) Africa who lived between 100,000 and 315,000 years ago and who subsequently diverged and migrated to other regions across the globe.

Question 26

Physical Anthropology

Answer 26

This used to be the more common name given to the subdiscipline of anthropology centered upon the study of human origins, evolution and variation (also see biological anthropology above). This name for the field has gradually become less popular due to two
reasons: first, it may not reflect our interests in other aspects of humankind that are not physical (such as those behavioral, cultural and spiritual),
and second, using this term popular in the early decades of our field may be viewed by some as harkening back to a time when biological
anthropologists conducted their work in unethical ways.

Question 27

Polygenetic

Answer 27

Having many different ancestries, as in older theories about human origins that involved multiple traditional groupings of humans evolving concurrently in different parts of the world before they merged into one species through interbreeding and/or intergroup warfare. These earlier suggestions have now been overwhelmed by insurmountable evidence for a single origin of the human species in Africa (see the “Out-of-
Africa model”).

Question 28

Polymorphism

Answer 28

A genetic variant within a population (caused either by a single gene or multiple genes) that occurs at a rate of over 1% among the population. Polymorphisms are responsible for variation in phenotypic traits such as blood type and skin color.

Question 29

Population

Answer 29

A group of humans living in a particular geographical area, with more local interbreeding within-group than interbreeding with other groups. A limited or restricted amount of gene flow between populations can occur due to geographical, cultural, linguistic, or environmental
factors.

Question 30

Population bottlenecking

Answer 30

An event in which genetic variation is significantly reduced owing to a sharp reduction in population size. This can occur when environmental disaster strikes or as a result of human activities(e.g.,genocides or group migrations).Animportantexampleofthisloss
in genetic variation occurred over the first human migrations out of Africa and into other continental regions.

Question 31

Prejudice

Answer 31

An unjustified attitude toward an individual or group that is not based on reason, whether positive (and showing preference for one group of people over another) or negative (and resulting in harm or injury to others).

Question 32

Race

Answer 32

The identification of a group based on a perceived distinctiveness that makes that group more similar to each other than they are to others outside the group. This may be based on cultural differences, genetic parentage, physical characteristics, behavioral attributes, or something arbitrarily and socially constructed. As a social or demographic category, perceptions of “race” can have real and serious consequences for different groups of people. This is despite the fact that biological anthropologists and geneticists have demonstrated that all humans are genetically homogenous and that more differences can be found within populations than between them in the overall apportionment of human biological
variation. This term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnicity.

Question 33

Racism

Answer 33

Any action or belief that discriminates against someone based on perceived differences in race or ethnicity.

Question 34

Scientific Revolution

Answer 34

A period between the 1400s and 1600s when substantial shifts occurred in the social, technological, and philosophical sense, when a scientific method based on the collection of empirical evidence through experimentation was emphasized and inductive reasoning was used to test hypotheses and interpret their results.

Question 35

Typological

Answer 35

Of or describing an assortment system that relies on the interpretation of qualitative similarities or differences in the study of variation among objects or people. The categorization of cultures or human groups according to “race” was performed with a typological approach in the earliest practice of anthropology, but this practice has since been discredited and abandoned.

Question 36

Variance

Answer 36

In statistics, variance measures the dispersal of a set of data around the mean or average value