Explanations for offending

Question 1

Eysenck theory background?

Answer 1

Eyeneck was a researcher of personality and intelligence in the mid-20th century.

Question 2

What is the personality theory?

Answer 2

He proposed behaviour could be represented across 2 dimensions: introversion-extraversion and neuroticism-stability. He later added a third dimension of psychoticism-sociability.

Question 3

What is the criminal personality?

Answer 3

a person who scores highly on the neurotic, extrovert and psychotic side of the scale.

Question 4

What did Eysenck say about the basis of personality traits?

Answer 4

Eyesneck argued our personality traits have a biological basis depending on the nervous system we inherit.

Question 5

Extrovertism basis?

Answer 5

have an underactive nervous system which means they constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking and dangerous activities.

Question 6

Neuroticism basis?

Answer 6

have a high level of reactivity in their sympathetic nervous system. They tend to respond quickly to threats, be jumpy, nervous and anxious. Their behaviour tends to be difficult to predict.

Question 7

Psychotic basis?

Answer 7

suggested to have had a higher level of testosterone and are unemotional, so are prone to aggression.

Question 8

What did Eysenck say about the link between personality and offending behaviour?

Answer 8

Personality links to offending behaviour by a socialisation process.

Question 9

What does the socialisation process do?

Answer 9

The process of socialisation is one in which children are taught to delay the need for instant gratification and become more socially orientated.

Question 10

Socialisation process and offending behaviour?

Answer 10

Eysenck argued that offending behaviour was developmentally immature in that it is selfish and craves immediate validation.
He also suggested that extraversion and neuroticism makes people difficult to condition, therefore they do not respond to punishment for antisocial impulses. They are more prone to be antisocial which could lead to criminality.

Question 11

How did Eysenck measure the criminal personality?

Answer 11

Eysenck used the ‘eysenck personality questionnaire’ which locates the position along the E, N and P dimensions.
This allowed him to conduct research into the link between personality and criminality.

Question 12

Strengths of Eysenck: research support?

Answer 12

Eysenck and Eysenck 1977 compared 2070 prisoner’s EPQ scores with 2422 controls. Prisoners scored higher on all scales than controls, which agrees with the prediction on the theory.

Question 13

Weaknesses of Eysenck: Farrington?

Answer 13

Farrington 1982 conducted a meta-analysis of relevant studies and reported that offenders scored higher in psychoticism but not in the other categories. There are also inconsistencies of EEGs between extraverts and introverts, and their level of cortical arousal. This casts doubts on the credibility of the theory.

Question 14

Weaknesses of Eysenck: too simplisitic?

Answer 14

Moffitt 1933 drew a distinction between adolescent offending behaviour and adulthood. She argued personality traits could not predict the length of time of offending behaviour, and the persistence comes from environmental reactions to the behaviour.

Question 15

Weaknesses of Eysenck: cultural factors?

Answer 15

Bartol and Holanchock 1979 studied Hispanic and African American offenders. All six groups of the participants had a lower extravert score than a control group. This sample is a very different sample to the one Eysenck studied. Questions how far the theory can be generalised.

Question 16

What is atavistic approach?

Answer 16

=A biological approach to explain offending that attributes criminal activity to the fact that offenders are genetic throwbacks or a primitive species that are ill-suited to conformity to social roles

Question 17

Lombroso’s theory of atavistic form explained:

Answer 17

Suggests criminals are biologically different.
A lack of evolutionary development means their savage, untamed nature means they cannot adjust to civilised society.
Criminals are distinguishable by facial features.

Question 18

How does Lombroso’s theory compare in different time period?

Answer 18

At the time, this was a new approach, which suggested the innate tendencies meant the criminals were not to blame. Today, the approach seems naive and speculative.

Question 19

What are the general characteristics of criminals?

Answer 19

-Sloping narrow brow, strong jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry and extra extremities.

Question 20

Characteristics of murderers?

Answer 20

bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears, cold stares.

Question 21

Characteristics of sexual offenders?

Answer 21

glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips.

Question 22

Characteristics of fraudsters?

Answer 22

thin/reedy lips

Question 23

Characteristics of thieves?

Answer 23

expressive face and small wandering eyes.

Question 24

What non-facial features did criminal have according to Lombroso?

Answer 24

It was also argued that ‘born criminals’ had a liking for tattoos, cruel and wicked games and their own language.

Question 25

What was Lombroso’s research?

Answer 25

Lombroso examined the features of over 4000 of Italian convicts who are dead and alive. He measured head span, neck span, eye colour, weight, the span of their arms, sizes of their hands. He concluded 40% of the crimes were conducted by people with atavistic characteristics.

Question 26

Strengths of atavistic form?

Answer 26

Lombroso has been hailed as the father of modern criminology as he was one of the first to study crime scientifically. His theory dominated criminal thinking for the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Geared the study towards science and evolution, and away from a moral and religious discussion

Question 27

Weaknesses of atavistic form: scientific standards?

Answer 27

Lombroso did not use a control group to compare his results, lowering the internal validity of the findings. Scientific standards were not as they are today.

Question 28

Weaknesses of atavistic form: socially sensitive?

Answer 28

This explanation is socially sensitive; some of the features described by Lombroso are linked to skin colour and other traits are associated with the concept of race, so it has been accused of scientific racism. Many of the atavistic features link to African descent. Therefore contributes to the idea of eugenic policies, arguing that those born with genetic advantages should be allowed to breed but those born with genetic disadvantages should be eliminated to improve the genetic quality of the population.

Question 29

Weaknesses of atavistic form: Goring?

Answer 29

Goring 1913 carried out the same experiment with 2000 London criminals and could not replicate the results.

Question 30

Weaknesses of atavistic form: determinism?

Answer 30

This theory is deterministic as it implies that possessing particular innate physical characteristics is likely to lead to crime. It does not take into account the influence of free will and moral/ religious values. This limits its usefulness as it cannot explain individual differences.

Question 31

Weaknesses of atavistic form: environment?

Answer 31

Some characteristics may not be innate and can be explained by environmental factors, such as poor nutrition in childhood.

Question 32

What is the neural explanation for offending?

Answer 32

=Explaining offending behaviour in terms of dysfunctions in the brain, including the prefrontal cortex and neurotransmitters. Most of the criminals in studies have been those with antisocial personality disorder (APD).

Question 33

What is did Raine suggest?

Answer 33

Suggested APD brains have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex which helps regulate emotions. So they find it difficult to control impulses and do not suffer from guilt.

Question 34

Raine’s research?

Answer 34

Raine studied 41 violent offenders and compared the activity in their prefrontal cortex to 41 non-criminals (including six schizophrenics) using PET scans. The violent offenders showed significantly less activity in the prefrontal lobe than the other participants suggesting less control over impulsive behaviour.

Question 35

How does the neural explanation explained adolescent antisocial behaviour?

Answer 35

The prefrontal cortex is not fully developed until the mid twenties, explaining the spike in adolescent antisocial behaviour.

Question 36

Keysers’ research into mirror neurons?

Answer 36

Recent research suggests APD brains can experience empathy, but it is sporadic.

Keysers 2011 found that criminals’ empathy reaction only activated when asked to empathise. This is because it is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain.

This suggested APD brains have a neural switch, whereas normal brains have the empathy reaction permanently on.

Question 37

Strengths of the neural explanation?

Answer 37

Use of scientific method and scientific equipment; PET scans.

Kahdel and Free 1989 reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage and antisocial behaviour. They tended to show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability and an inability to learn from mistakes. This supports the idea that brain damage may be a causal factor in offending behaviour.

Question 38

Weaknesses of the neural explanation: reductionism?

Answer 38

Explaining crime simply through brain structure is very reductionist. Crime is complex, and the reasons for people turning to crime are many and varied.

Question 39

Weaknesses of the neural explanation: complex link?

Answer 39

Farrington 2006 studied a group of men who scored high in APD symptoms. These men also had various risk factors from childhood such as being neglected and raised by a convicted parent, and it was suggested that this caused APD and the neural differences were caused by trauma. This shows the link is very complex.

Question 40

Weaknesses of the neural link: determinism?

Answer 40

The justice system is based on the fact we have free will and that crime is not biologically determined.

Question 41

What is the genetic explanation for offending?

Answer 41

=Suggests that offenders have inherited a gene/combination of genes that predisposes them to crime.

Question 42

Christiansen 1997 twin study?

Answer 42

-Christiansen (1977) looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark.

A 35% (males) and 22% (females) concordance rate for criminality was found for monozygotic (identical) twins, compared to just 13% (males) and 8% (females) for dizygotic (non-identical) twins.

Question 43

Crowe 1972 adoption study?

Answer 43

-Crowe (1972) found that adopted children, whose biological mother had a criminal record, had a 50% increased risk of also having a criminal record by the age of 18. The control group had a 5% risk.

Question 44

What two candidate genes have been linked to offending?

Answer 44

MAOA and CH13.

Question 45

MAOA:

Answer 45

Brunner studied a genetic abnormality commonly known as the ‘warrior gene’ as it is associated with excessively violent and aggressive behaviour, which may lead to crime.

The MAOA gene regulates serotonin in the brain. The impaired metabolism of serotonin is also likely to be responsible for mental issues, and this could be linked to aggressive behaviour.

Question 46

CH13:

Answer 46

has been linked to ADHD and substance abuse.

Question 47

Tiihoren et al 2015

Answer 47

800 Finnish offenders were genetically analysed by Tiihoren et al 2015 and it was found that 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to MAOA and CH13.

Question 48

How can the diathesis stress model explain offending?

Answer 48

It has also been suggested the diathesis stress model can explain crime, with environmental factors being criminal role models or a dysfunctional household.

Question 49

Strengths of the genetic explanation?

Answer 49

Support for diathesis stress model- Mendick et al 1984 studied 13,000 Danish adoptees. When neither biological (b) or adoptive (a) parents had convictions, 13.5 % of adoptees did. When the biological parents did, the percentage was 20%. When both did the figure was 24.5%. Genetic inheritance plays an important role in offending behaviour.

Question 50

Weaknesses of the genetic explanation: reductionism and determinism?

Answer 50

We must avoid biological determinism; genes are not destiny. Criminals have free will.
Explaining crime simply through genes is very reductionist. Crime is complex, and the reasons for people turning to crime are many and varied.

Question 51

Weaknesses of the genetic explanation: issues with twin studies?

Answer 51

Twin studies assume there are equal environments. MZ look identical whereas DZ don’t so they may be treated differently. So higher concordance in MZ may be due to the fact they are treated similarly so have more similar environments than DZ. Therefore twin studies cannot be the only evidence for genetic inheritance.

Question 52

What are cognitive distortions?

Answer 52

=faulty, biassed and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves and others in a way that does not match reality, but we believe is right.

Question 53

How do cognitive distortions link to criminal behaviour?

Answer 53

-Distortions allow an offender to rationalise and deny their criminal behaviours.

Question 54

What is hostile attribution bias?

Answer 54

The tendency to misinterpret other people’s actions, words and expressions as aggressive, provocative and threatening, when in reality they are not.

Question 55

How does hostile attribution bias link to offending?

Answer 55

Offenders misread non-aggressive cues which may trigger a disproportionate and often violent response. This allows offenders to rationalise their offending behaviour by blaming other factors for it.S

Question 56

Hostile attribution bias- Schonenberg and Justye 2014

Answer 56

Schonenberg and Jusyte 2014 presented 55 violent offenders images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. Compared to a control group of non offenders, they were significantly more likely to perceive the faces as angry or hostile.

Question 57

Dodge and Frame 1982?

Answer 57

Dodge and Frame 1982 suggested this may be prevalent in childhood. They showed children a video of ambiguous provocation. Children who had been classified as ‘aggressive’ were more likely to perceive the video as hostile than those who were non-aggressive.

Question 58

What is minimalisation?

Answer 58

=the attempt to downplay the seriousness of one’s own offence to explain the consequences as less significant or damaging.
Bandura 1973 called it the euphemistic label.

Question 59

How does minimalisation link to offneding?

Answer 59

This helps the individual to accept the consequences of their offences and reduce the negative emotions such as guilt.

Question 60

What type of offenders particularly are prone to minimalisation?

Answer 60

Sexual offenders.

Question 61

Barbaree 1991?

Answer 61

Barbaree 1991 found in 26 convicted rapists, 54% denied any offence and 40% minimised the harm they had caused the victim.

Question 62

Strengths of cognitive distortions?

Answer 62

Applications to CBT- aims to challenge irrational thinking regarding offending behaviour. Offenders are encouraged to face up to what they have done and establish a less distorted view. Harkins et al 2010 suggested reduced denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly associated with reduced reoffending. Therefore it has practical value.

Question 63

Limitations of cognitive distortions?

Answer 63

The level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence. Howitt and Sheldon 2007 gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders and contrary to prediction, the non-contact sexual offenders used more distortions than contact sexual offenders. Those with a history of offending were also more likely to use distortions. This suggests distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders.

Question 64

What is Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning?

Answer 64

-Kohlberg 1968 was the first researcher to apply moral reasoning to offending behaviour.

-He proposed people’s decisions and judgements on what was right and what was wrong could be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning, where the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning.

Question 65

What is the pre-conventional level?

Answer 65

Stages 1 and 2. Characterised by the need to avoid punishment and gain reward. This is childlike, less mature reasoning, the sense of defining decisions as good is what decisions are good for us.

Question 66

What is the conventional level?

Answer 66

The social rules and expectations of others determine what is acceptable or unacceptable. A social system exaggerates the desire for social order and responsibilities of relationships.

Question 67

What is the post-conventional level?

Answer 67

Individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles.

Question 68

How does level of moral reasoning link with offending?

Answer 68

Offenders are more likely to be classified at stages 1 and 2 of the model, and non–offenders are more likely to be classed in the conventional and post conventional stages.

People with this reasoning will commit crime if they believe they can get away with it or gain a reward.

Question 69

Kohlberg 1972?

Answer 69

Kohlnberg 1972- used moral dilemmas to observe that a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than a non-violent comparison group, even after controlling social background.

Question 70

Chandler 1972?

Answer 70

Studies also suggest offenders are egocentric and have poorer social perspective taking skills. Chandler 1972. Those who reason at a higher level tend to sympathise and exhibit more conventional behaviour.

Question 71

Strengths of moral reasoning?

Answer 71

Research support- Palmer and Hollin 1998- compared moral reasoning of 332 non-offenders with 126 convicted offenders, using 11 moral dilemma related questions. Offender group showed a less mature reasoning than the non-offender control group. This supports the theory.

Question 72

Limitations of moral reasoning: moral behaviour?

Answer 72

Kohlberg’s theory is useful in that it provides insight into the mechanics of the criminal mind, however, moral thinking is not the same as moral behaviour. Moral reasoning is more likely to be used after behaviour has happened, so it cannot be a cause.

Question 73

Limitations of moral reasoning: type of offence?

Answer 73

The level of moral reasoning may depend on the offence. Thornton and Reid 1982 found people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes like assault.

Question 74

Do cognitive theories have practical value?

Answer 74

-Cognitive theories of offending are good at describing criminal minds and may help in reducing reoffending.
-However, they do not help us to predict future offending behaviour, because if someone has the tendency for distorted thinking, it does not guarantee that they will become an offender.

Question 75

What is the differential association theory?

Answer 75

-A social learning theory of crime proposed by Sutherland 1939.
-It suggests that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending through the association and interaction with others. These people themselves have different attitudes towards crime.
-Offending therefore depends on the social group and norms of the offender.

Question 76

Does the differential association theory have scientific basis?

Answer 76

Sutherland wanted to have a scientific principle that could explain all types of offending. So the conditions that ‘cause’ crime are present when crime is present, and are not present when crime is not.
The theory is designed to discriminate between people who become offenders and who do not, regardless of the social background.

Question 77

how is offending learned through the DAT?

Answer 77

Offending is acquired through the same process of learning as any other behaviour, mostly through interactions with who the child most values.

Question 78

What did Sutherland aim to do with the DAT?

Answer 78

Sutherland suggested it should be mathematically possible to predict how likely it is that a criminal will commit crime. To do this we need to know how many interactions a person has with people with pro crime and anti crime attitudes.

Question 79

Learning attitudes?

Answer 79

when socialising with a group, you are exposed to pro crime and anti crime attitudes. Sutherland argued that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes outnumbers the number of anti-crime, then the person will go on to offend. The process is the same for learning to offend, or learning to conform to the law.

Question 80

Learning techniques?

Answer 80

the potential offender will also have to learn particular techniques for offending.

Question 81

How does the DAT explain reoffending?

Answer 81

Whilst in prison, they socialise with other criminals, so are exposed to pro-crime attitudes and can learn techniques from more experienced offenders.

Question 82

Delinquent development Farrington et al 2006?

Answer 82

-The Cambridge study in delinquent development.
-Longitudinal survey of the development of offending and antisocial behaviour in 411 boys, which started when they were 8 in a deprived area of London.
-Of those sampled, 41% were convicted for at least 1 offence. The average convection career was ages 19-28 and included 5 convictions.
-The risk factors for ages 8-10 are family criminality, risk taking, low school attainment and poor parenting.

Question 83

Strengths of DAT: shift of focus?

Answer 83

changes focus of offending explanations. Emphasise moved away from early biological theories and theories blaming an offender’s weakness or immorality. Draws attention to social circumstances and environments which are more realistic and desirable rather than a eugenic theory.

Question 84

Strengths of DAT: wider reach?

Answer 84

this theory can account for all areas of society. Sutherland was very interested in white collar crimes and how this may be a feature in middle class social groups which share the same deviant values about these types of crime. Shows it is not just the lower classes that commit offences.

Question 85

Limitations of DAT: stereotypes?

Answer 85

the theory risks stereotyping individuals who come from impoverished and crime ridden backgrounds as ‘inevitable offenders’. It suggests being exposed to pro-crime attitudes is enough to bring out offending behaviour, which ignores free will.

Question 86

Limitations of DAT: predictions?

Answer 86

Sutherland wanted to provide a scientific, mathematical framework which future offending could be predicted with. However some concepts cannot be operationalised so its hard to count the number of offending behaviours. It is also hard to know at what point the urge to offend is triggered. So the theory does not have scientific credibility.

Question 87

What are psycho dynamic explanations?

Answer 87

a perspective that describes the different forces of nature which are mostly unconscious that operate in the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

Question 88

What are the three psychodynamic explanations?

Answer 88

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation.
Blackburn’s theory of the inadequate superego.
Dual Instinct Theory (Frued).

Question 89

How does Bowlby’s theory of deprivation link to offending?

Answer 89

-He argued that the ability of adults forming meaningful relationships in later life was dependent upon forming a warm continuous relationship with a mother figure in the critical period of 2 years.
-Failure to do so would have damaging and irreversible effects in later life.

Question 90

How does affectionless psychopathy link to offending?

Answer 90

Characterised by lack of guilt and empathy, impulsivity and lack of remorse.
Maternally deprived individuals are more likely to not form close relationships and fall into delinquency.

Question 91

Bowlby’s 44 thieves study?

Answer 91

1944. Through interviews of the 44 thieves and their families; 14 were classed as affectionless psychopathy and of these, 12 were maternally deprived. This compared with 2 of the 44 non-thieves who had experienced separation.
      Bowlby concluded that the effects of maternal deprivation had caused such effects and behaviour in the juvenile thieves.

Question 92

What is the superego?

Answer 92

–Formed at the end of the phallic stage when the oedipus or electra complex is resolved.
–The internalised sense of right and wrong operating on the morality principle.
–It punishes the ego with guilt for wrongdoing and rewards it with pride for good moral behaviour.

Question 93

What was Blackburn’s 1933 theory?

Answer 93

Blackburn 1933 argued that if the superego is weak or inadequate, offending behaviour is inevitable because the id is not properly controlled. It can be deficient in three ways:

Question 94

How can the superego be inadequate?

Answer 94

-Weak/undervelopped.
-Deviant.
-Overharsh.

Question 95

Weak/underdeveloped superego?

Answer 95

if the same gender parent is not present in the phallic stage, the child cannot internalise a fully formed superego, as they cannot identify with this parent. Offending behaviour is more likely because they have little control over antisocial behaviour and will tend to act in ways that satisfy the id.

Question 96

Deviant suprego?

Answer 96

The superego that the child has internalised may have immoral or deviant values. This can happen with offender parents. This leads to offending behaviour because the child does not associate guilt with wrongdoing.

Question 97

Overharsh/overdeveloped superego?

Answer 97

happens when a child has a very strict same sex parent, they internalise an excessively harsh superego. The child is crippled with guilt and anxiety. The superego has an overwhelming need for punishment because that is what it is used to, which may unconsciously drive offending behaviour.

Question 98

How does the psycho dynamic approach show the importance of emotion?

Answer 98

-The effect of an inadequate superego is to allow primitive emotional demands to guide moral behaviour.
-This contrasts this approach with all others. It deals with the emotional life of the individual.

Question 99

What is Frued’s dual instinct thoery?

Answer 99

-Frued did not link his ideas directly to offending behaviour.
He proposed two drives that are responsible for most of our behaviour.

Question 100

The life instinct?

Answer 100

Also known as Eros Instinct, as Eros is the Greek God of love and sex.
Deals with survival, pleasure and reproduction.
Survival needs like thirst, hunger, pain avoidance and also social needs such as love, affection, cooperation and prosocial actions.

Question 101

The death instinct?

Answer 101

Thanatos is the Greek God of death.
Drive towards death and destruction. The unconscious desire to die is often tempered by the life instinct.
Frued theorised that the death drive is often expressed as aggression towards others or in the form of self loathing.

Question 102

Strengths of psychodynamic explanation: pioneering ideas?

Answer 102

Psychodynamic explanations were some of the first to link early experiences in childhood to moral behaviour which is now common ideology. It also drew attention to the emotional basis which is ignored by all other approaches.

Question 103

Strengths of psychodynamic eplanation: research support?

Answer 103

Goreta 1991- conducted a Fruedian style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment. Disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed in each one, all of them had unconscious feelings of guilt and need for self-punishment. This was explained by an overharsh superego.

Question 104

Limitations of psychodynamic explanation: contradictory evidence?

Answer 104

Kochanska 2001 suggests parents who rely on harsher forms of discipline tend to produce more rebellious children who rarely experience guilt and remorse, which is not predicted by the theory.

Question 105

Limitations of psychodynamic explanations: gender bias?

Answer 105

there is an assumption that female superego’s are weaker than males because the identification with the same sex parent is not as strong, due to the lack of castration anxiety. Some female sense of morality is less developed. This is contradicted by statistics. The theory may not be appropriate in explaining all aspects of behaviour. Hoffman1975 found that when asked to resist temptation, there was only a small difference, but girls were more moral than boys.

Question 106

Limitations of pscyhodynamic explanations: other factors?

Answer 106

Lewis 1954 analysed data from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending and the ability to form closer relationships. It may just be a correlational link, as there are other reasons such as poverty or a criminal family.

Question 107

Limitations of psychodynamic behaviour: unconscious?

Answer 107

Unconscious elements of the theory do not allow for empirical testing. Therefore, the lack of scientific supporting efforts means the theories can only be judged at face value and lack scientific credibility.